Science and Life

Chemistry has always existed. The formation of the Earth and the development of life involved many chemical processes. In ancient times, many of the items discovered through trial and error by humans to meet the basic needs of the people.
CHEMISTS in the ANTIQUE AGE

Sheltering
Medicine
Clothing
Protection

After producing fire, ancient men started to construct tools to make their lives easier. They made:
Clothes from the leather of the animals
Weapons from metals.
Dyes.
Medicines from the plants and animal products.
Pots from the sand and metals.
Perfumes and detergents

An Alchemy Recap
The People, Places and Discoveries

What is Alchemy?
( key words: philosophy – goals- cure- diseases- prolonging – infinitely)
( A form of medieval speculative thought
A combination of philosophy, science and magic
It laid the foundation for chemistry)
ALCHEMY is a speculative philosophy with the goals of transmutation of cheap metals such as iron and lead to gold. Alchemists are also looking for a universal cure for diseases and a way of prolonging life infinitely
An ALCHEMIST is a person who deals with alchemy theoretically and practically.

The Goals of Alchemy
Philosopher’s Stone: a stone to make everything gold.( A tool that would allow the transmutation of cheap metals into gold )
Elixir of life: immortality. (ab-ı hayat)
Foundation of youth: cure diseases.

Alchemists used trial and error method.
Alchemists didn’t use experimentation method.
Alchemy is only a mystical philosophy which is based on spiritual transformations with the help of intrinsic powers rather than physical scientific information.
Alchemy is not a science because:

Although alchemy is not considered a science, alchemists were the first chemists. Their subscription in the birth of chemistry cannot be ignored. Their contributions were:
1. Alchemists developed many laboratory equipments (glassware such as alembic).
2. Alchemists discovered many mineral acids. Such as:
H2SO4 = Sulfuric acid.
HCl = Hydrochloric acid.
HNO3 = Nitric acid.
Contributions of Alchemy to Chemistry

3. They discovered some elements such as mercury, lead and antimony.
4. They discovered gun powder, ink,alumn(şap), soda, soap(oil+soda mixture)many cosmetics, dyes, ceramics, glass, and essences.
5. They discovered many laboratory techniques such as grinding, mixing, heating, dissolving, crystallization, distillation, filtration and extraction.
6. They made many alloys.
7. They developed many cures for the illnesses with plants and mineral stones.

How It All Began
A very brief timeline
Greek Philosophy
Egyptian Science
Chinese Alchemy
Arabic Alchemy

Empedocles (around 450 BC)
A Greek philosopher.
He defined elements as the basic building blocks from which all other materials are made.
He stated that the ratio of these four elements(air,water,earth,fire) affected the properties of matter.

Democritus (460-370 BC)
A Greek philosopher
Theory of Matter – all matter is made up of indivisible particles called atomos (which means indivisible)
A substance could be changed by rearranging the atoms

Aristotle (384-322BC)
Believed that the central part of the universe was comprised of 4 elements
Earth
Air
Water
Fire

Aristotle
According to Aristotle, matter was composed of four elements: earth, fire, air and water. He classified the four elements with their properties: hot, cold, dry and wet. He was not an "atomist" like Democritus. To change one material into another all that is required is to alter the proportions of each element

Aristotle
Aristotle’s theory ruled for 2000 years because:
It was comprehensive
It was based on common sense
It was accepted and taught by the church

Alchemy in Ancient Egypt
Egyptian’ contribution to chemistry
Producing tools for make up, building.
Dyeing clothes and painting surfaces.
Decoration.
Ornamentation.
Mummification.
Processing metals for living
They prepared some alloys.
Developed many adhensive ( such as albümin, gelatin, glue)

In the Hellenistic (primary Greek or Roman) cultures, there are also some practices for alchemy and chemistry:
They developed some techniques such as distillation.
They tried to find endless life.
Zosimos tried transmutation other metals into gold.
In Ancient Rome

Chinese Alchemy
Its main focus was medicine
Black Powder (greatest contribution – achieved)
used in fireworks and cannons
Gunpowder: China ? Japan ?
Arab World ? Europe

Arabic Alchemy
Arabic alchemy was dominated by Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber) and Al-Razi

Jabir Ibn Hayyan & Al- Razi
Born in 721, was either Arab or Persian.
He was Islamic philosopher, alchemist, astronomer and physicist.
He was known as the father of Arab chemistry
Known as first experimental chemist.
He created a number of practical applications for chemistry.
Invented distillation and discovered various acids. For example; sulfuric and nitric acids.
He developed AQUA REGIA that dissolves gold.( 3 volumes HCl+1 volume HNO3
He performed the processes of sublimation and filtration.
He worked with various metals and developed steel.
He led the way of classification of matter as metals, nonmetals and volatile substances.

Al – Razi wrote two books outlining his views of matter, equipment, tools and chemical operations related to pharmacy.
He proved toxicity of arsenic.
He developed “AQUA VITAE(a concentrated solution of ethyl alcohol)”.
He developed many laboratory equipments.
He distilled petroleum.
He produced antiseptics.
He developed many chemical processes such as sublimation

Ibn Sina:
He was concentrated on medicine.
He developed many healing methods with different drugs.
In his book, “the Book of Healing”, he discussed the philosophy of science and described the early scientific method.
He used distillation method to produce essential oils.
He classified inorganic substances as sulfurs, lapides, metals and salts.

EL - BIRUNI

Major Contributions from Alchemists
Lab Techniques
Distillation, filtration, crystallization, evaporation, extraction and coagulation
Medicines
Experimental drugs and synthetic drugs used to cure ailments and illnesses
Lab Tools and Supplies
Mineral acids, alcohols, glassware
Symbolic Language of Chemistry
Symbols for chemicals and lab procedures

Symbols in Alchemy

“Stop making gold,” he taught “instead
find medicines.”
“discover new medicines rather than making gold”
Paracelsus (1493-1541)

Robert Boyle1627 - 1691)
Robert Boyle redefined an element as “a substance that could not be broken down into simpler substances.” He separated chemistry from alchemy and introduced experimental methods..

He believed that mass was conserved through chemical reactions
The Law of Conservation of Mass
Discovered the “composition” of many compounds containing oxygen.
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
(1743-1794)

What is chemistry?

2.1 The Fundamental Disciplines of Chemistry
Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry which performs analysis, identification, separation and quantification of components and composition of natural and man-made materials.
Biochemistry is a branch of chemistry involving the study of materials and processes that occur in living things.
Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry which is known as the study of carbon compounds
Inorganic chemistry is a sub-field of chemistry which deals with structure, composition and behavior of inorganic compounds.
Physical chemistry is the study of the fundamental physical principles that govern the way that atoms, subatomic particles, molecules, and other chemical systems behave.

Polymer chemistry is a discipline that deals with long chemical chains. These long chemical chains are called polymers or macromolecules.
Industrial chemistry is concerned with using chemical and physical processes to transform raw materials into products that are beneficial to humanity

https://quizlet.com/6483467/six-major-branches-of-chemistry-flash-cards/
Six major branches of Chemistry

2.2 Application Areas of Chemistry Disciplines( chemistry at work)
Chemistry in Fertilizer Processing
A fertilizer is a plant nutrient added to a soil to increase its yield. Fertilizers are made of natural and artificial chemicals. natural fertilizer is not enough in the world
Chemistry In Petrochemistry
Petrochemistry is the study of the transmution of crude oil(petroleum) to useable products. Chemists distill petroleum
Chemistry in Purification Process
Water purification is a process of removing unwanted materials from water to produce drinking water.

Chemistry in Processing of Hardwood
Wood is composed of cellulose and once raw wood is obtained, it is processed to be used in different areas. Such as paper,
Chemistry in Medicine Processing
Medicinal chemıstry: Medicinal chemistry is the application of chemical research techniques to the synthesis of pharmaceuticals.

Chemistry in Textile-Dyeing Process
Textile chemistry: Textile chemistry is a highly specialized field that applies the principles of chemistry to the production of textiles, such as those used in clothing, furniture, tire yarn and air bags.
It is the job of chemists to develop the right dyeing material for each type of clothing
Environmental chemistry: Environmental chemists try to understand how chemicals move through the environment and their effects on human health and the environment itself.

OTHER USES OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is also used for detecting the doping materials in the body of the sportsmen.They also analyze poisons and explosives .In detecting the criminals, chemical analysis is used. Once an event occurs, chemists analyses the environment for the blood stains, hair or other living liquids in order to state the genetical password of the criminal. This area of chemistry is criminal chemistry.

Where a chemistry major can lead you

Where a chemistry major can lead you

CHEMISTRY RELATED OCCUPATIONS
Chemical Engineering: Chemical engineering is all about turning raw materials into useful, everyday products. The clothes we wear, the food and drink we consume and the energy we use all depend upon chemical engineering.

Chemist: A chemist is a scientist who researches and experiments with the properties of chemical substances. They measure the effects of chemical compounds in various situations and study inter-chemical reactions.

Metallurgical Engineering: Metallurgical engineering involves the study, innovation, design, implementation, and improvement of processes that transform mineral resources and metals into useful products that improve the quality of our lives

Pharmacology: Pharmacology is the science of drug action on biological systems. It involves chemical properties, biological effects and therapeutic uses of drugs. It is a science that is basic not only to medicine, but also to pharmacy, nursing, dentistry and veterinary medicine

Chemistry Teacher: A chemistry teacher teaches high school students about chemicals. chemistry teachers facilitate student learning and understanding of chemistry through guided inquiry, direct instruction, investigations, problem solving, and discussion.

Do we use any symbols in our life?
Why do we need symbols?
Why do we use international symbols?
Do you know any symbol about science?
Why do scientists use symbols?
What is the importance of symbolic language?
Symbolic Language of Elements

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
The Historical Development of the Symbolic Language of Chemistry
The modern symbols used to represent the chemical elements consist of one or two letters from the element's name. Historically, symbols were not always like this.

Empedocles at around 450 BC.
Fire: Triangle points up
Water: Triangle points down
Air: Triangle points up with a horizontal line
through center of triangle
Earth: Triangle points down with a horizontal
line through center of triangle

There were often many symbols for an element. For a time, the astronomical symbols of the planets were used to denote the elements

DALTON
He used circles with markings to represent the various individual atoms. He used circles with dots, lines, crosses and shading in them. he put letters in the circles to represent the elements.

About ten years later, in Sweden, Berzelius suggested just using letters to represent atoms of each element .These are the symbols that we use today.

System for Determining Symbols of the Elements
1. The symbols of the most common elements, mainly nonmetals, use the first letter of their English name.
Examples:
Hydrogen: H, Boron : B,
Carbon: C, Nitrogen : N,
Oxygen: O, Fluorine : F
, Phosphorous : P, Sulfur: S
, Iodine: I

2. If the name of the element has the same initial letter as another element, then the symbol uses the first and second letters of their English name.
Examples: Helium:He,
Beryllium :Be,
Neon : Ne

3. If the first two letters of the element name are the same as another element, then the symbol consists of the first letter and the first consonant of the English name that they do not have in common.
Examples:
Magnesium has the symbol Mg (First letter and first consonant)
Manganese has the symbol Mn
Chlorine has the symbol Cl (First letter and first consonant NOT in common)
Chromium has the symbol Cr

4. Some symbols are based on the old name or Latin name of the element. There are eleven elements:

Symbolic Language of Elements

2 Elements and Symbols of Elements
All substances are made up of matter and the fundamental unit of matter is the atom. The atom constitutes the smallest particle of an element. An atom consists of two main parts. Firstly a nucleus in which protons, having a positive charge, and neutrons no charge, is tightly bound together. Secondly, surrounding the nucleus, are one or more electrons in shells, each of which has an associated energy level. The number of electrons is always equal to the number of protons, so the atom has no resultant charge

An element is a substance made up of atoms of one kind.
An element:
consists of only one kind of atom,
cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical means, and
can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).

Elements can be classified in to 3 groups
Monatomic Element: Elements occur in the form of single atoms that are not bound to other atoms. For example; Gold (Au), copper (Cu) and noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) etc…
Diatomic Element: An element exists as a molecule made up of two atoms. For example; Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, brome and chlorine in nature are diatomic elements.
Polyatomic element: An element exists as a molecule made up of three or more atoms. For example; ozone (03) and sulfur ( S8) are polyatomic elements.

Molecule: A molecule is formed when atoms of the same or different elements combine. A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can normally exist independently.
Examples:
Two atoms of oxygen combine to form a molecule of oxygen [O2].
One atom of carbon combines with two atoms of oxygen to form a molecule of carbon dioxide [CO2].

A compound is a pure substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically bonded together. Formula is the group of symbols that shows elements and number of elements in a compound
consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,
can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means (but not by physical means),
has properties that are different from its component elements, and
always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.

Nomenclature of compounds
When compounds are named, some rules should be taken into consideration. If a compound consists of two elements, then it should be called with its elements’ names. If a compound consists of two more elements, then it should be called with a special name. Some of the compounds that consist of two more compounds have special parts called as roots.
Root Formula Root Name
OH- Hydroxide
NO3- Nitrate
SO42- Sulfate
CO32- Carbonate
PO43- Phosphate
For the nomenclature of this type of compounds, firstly, the elements name that bonds to the root is called and then root’s name should be called.

Writing Formulas of Compounds
General Rules
1. Firstly, the symbol of the cation (metal) is written and the symbol of the anion (non metal) is written last.
2. The sum of the charges in the compound must be equal to zero. Therefore, the subscripts are written to cancel out of the charges on cation and anion.
3. If more than one polyatomic ion is present in the formula, it is embedded in parenthesis and number of polyatomic ion is written as a subscript to the right of the final bracket.

Example: Write the formula of the compound formed between
12Mg and 17Cl
20Ca and 8O
Na+ and PO43- ions
Al3+ and OH- ions.

Charge of Some Elements
Metal Ions
You know that elements metal or non metal to name the compound.

Metal Ions (Metals that form more than one ion)

Non Metal Ions

Naming Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Name of the metal (cation) + Name of the anion
(or polyatomic ion)
Example: NaCl
Mg(OH):
Example: FeCl3: CuSO4:

Name the following compounds
Na3PO4
CaS
AlN
KNO3
FeMnO4
CuCr2O7
Pb(OH)4
SnCl2

Write the formula of the following ionic compounds
Sodium nitrate
Copper (II) hydroxide
Calcium phosphate
Ammonium chloride
Lead (II) carbonate
Magnesium dichromate

SAFETY IN THE CHEMISTRY LABORATORY 1. Always wear goggles, gloves apron for safety.
2. Never reach across a flame.
3. Immediately notify your teacher if any chemical gets on your skin or clothing to find out what to do to clean it off.
4. Never look directly into a test tube when mixing or heating chemicals.
5. Always point a test tube away from you and others when heating it over a flame or other heat source.

6. Never smell a chemical directly from the container. Wave your hand over the opening of the container and “waft” the fumes towards your nose.
7. Never taste a chemical unless you are instructed by your teacher to do so.
8. Never mix chemicals without your teacher’s permission.
9. Never use broken or chapped glassware.
10. Immediately notify your teacher if you get cut or have another injury when performing an experiment
11.Long hair must be tied back.

Beaker:A wide-mouthed container used to transport, heat or store substances.

Erlenmeyer Flask : A narrow-mouthed container used to transport, heat or store substances, often used when a stopper is required.

volumetric flask: It is used to measure an exact volume of liquid.

Test tube: Hold or used to mix a small amount of liquid or aqueous chemicals
Graduated Cylinder: Used to measure volume very precisely

Test tube holder: Holds a test tube so you don’t have to.
Test tube rack: Holds many test tubes.

Funnel: Used to pour liquids into containers with small openings or to hold filter paper
Tongs: Used to pick up or hold hot objects

Triple Beam Balance: A device to measure the mass of an object or substance.
.

Wacth glass:They can be used for evaporation purposes and also can function as a lid for a beaker. It can hold a small amount of liquid or solid

Spatulas and scoopulas : they are for scooping solid chemicals.

Striker: Used to light a Bunsen burner.
Bunsen Burner: Used to heat objects

Ring Clamp: Attaches to a lab stand and used to hold a variety of lab equipment
Eye Dropper: Used to dispense a very small amount of a liquid

Rubber stoppers: Seal an Erlenmeyer flask.

Evaporating dish: Holds a liquid or aqueous chemical that is being heated.
Wash bottle: Used to wash the sides of flask during a titration.

Lab Coat or Apron: Protects the scientist and the scientist’s clothes from hazardous or hot chemicals
Pipette: Used to precisely measure a certain volume of liquid or aqueous chemical.

Burette: To determine how much liquid is added or used
separatory funnel : used to separate immiscible liquids.

Symbolic Language of Elements