Synonyms. Lecture 9

Synonyms
words of the same language
belong to the same part of speech
possess one or more identical or nearly identical denotational (основное, точное) meanings
interchangeable, at least in some contexts

Synonyms are different in outer aspects but
identical or similar in inner aspects.
Mother –mom
A lot of borrowings A lot of synonyms in English
Hearty (native)- Cordial (borrowed)

Synonyms
differ in morphemic shape
differ in phonemic shape
differ in shades of meaning, connotations (дополнит-е, сопутств-ующею значение)
differ in style, idiomatic use

-Was she a pretty girl?
-I would certainly have called her attractive.
‘pretty ‘ is too good for her –not pretty but attractive
essentially they both describe a pleasant appearance
-Think you can play Romeo? Romeo should smile, not grin;
walk not swagger; speak his lines not mumble them!
Smile (positive)----grin (broad but foolish smile)
Walk – swagger (walking but in insolent manner)
Speak – mumble (speaking but indistinctly)

Criteria of Synonymy
conceptual criterion
the criterion of interchangeability
semantic criterion

Conceptual Criterion
Synonyms
are of the same category of parts of speech
convey the same concept
differ in shades of meaning
differ in stylistic characteristics
Washington is the capital of the USA.
(referent is the same, but there’s no linguistic relationship
of synonymity)

Semantic Criterion
Synonyms
have the same denotation
differ in connotations (connotative component0
denotative component + connotative component
To glare to look
+ lastingly + with anger

The Criterion of Interchangeability
Synonyms
are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning
A pretty /good-looking / attractive / beautiful girl,

But!
I like you but I cannot love you
Romeo should smile but not grin
Substitution of one word for another is impossible!

He glared at her.
He glazed at her.
He glanced at her.
He peered at her.
He looked at her angrily.
He looked at her steadily and attentively.
He looked at her briefly.
He tried to see her better, but something prevented (darkness, weak eyesight).

Type classification of Synonyms
(by V.V. Vinogradov)
Ideographic
Stylistic
Absolute

Classification of Synonyms
(by V.V. Vinogradov)
ideographic (denotational)
words conveying the same concept but differing in
shades of meaning
to look –
to see
to gaze
to glare.

Type classification of Synonyms
(by V.V. Vinogradov)
absolute – words coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics
Motherland- homeland
Very rare !!!

Classification of Synonyms
(by V.V. Vinogradov)
stylistic – words differing in stylistic characteristics
Father – Dad - Daddy

Types of Connotations
connotation of degree or intensity
to like – to admire – to love – to adore – to worship
connotation of duration
to shudder (brief) – to shiver (lasting)

Types of Connotations
emotive connotation- associating with the same nature of the emotion they imply
to tremble – to shiver – to shudder – to shake
evaluative connotation – convey speaker’s attitude towards the referent, labeling it as good or bad
well-known – famous - celebrated

Types of Connotations
causative connotation (different reasons)
to shiver with a cold, from a chill
to shudder with fear, horror
connotation of manner( different ways and types of doing smth)
to stroll – to stride – to trot – to pace - to swagger
– to stagger – to stumble

Types of Connotations
connotation of attendant circumstances
(a set of scenery is build in the context)
to peep -to look at smb/smth through a hole / from a half-
closed door, a curtain
to peer- to look at smb/smth in darkness, through the fog, from a great distance

Types of Connotations
stylistic connotation
girl
girlie (colloquial)
lassie (dialect)
bird, birdie
skirt (slang)
maiden (poetic)
damsel (archaic)

The Dominant Synonym
All synonymic groups have a “central” word
of this kind whose meaning is equal to the
denotation common to all synonymic group.
This word is called- the dominant synonym
To make-
to produce,
to create,
to fabricate,
to manufacture

The dominant synonym expresses the notion
common to all synonyms of the group in the most
general way, without contributing any additional
information as to
the manner,
intensity,
duration,
any attending feature of the referent.
Dominant synonym-
a typical basic-vocabulary word.

Dominant Synonym
high frequency of usage
broad combinability
(ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words)
broad general meaning
lack of connotations
(goes for stylistic connotations)
.

Hyponymic structures
Inclusion-
relations exist between two words if the meaning
of one word contains the semantic feature
constituting the meaning of the other word
Flower ----rose, tulip, snowdrops…

Hyponymy
The semantic relations of inclusion –
hyponymic relations
Vehicle ------- car, bus, taxi, tram…
The general term The more specific term
Hyperonym hyponyms

Sources of Synonyms
synonymic attraction - the referent which is very popular attracts a large number of synonyms
variants and dialects of English
lass (Scottish) - girl (English)
long-distance call (USA) – trunk call (British)

Sources of Synonyms
word-building
lab laboratory shortening
cheery - cheerful affixation
anxiety – anxiousness
phrasal verbs and set expressions
to continue – to go on
to smoke – to have a smoke

Sources of Synonyms
euphemisms – a shift of unpleasant, too direct or rude meaning of a word to a more pleasant or milder one
drunk – merry
naked – in one’s birthday suit

lavatory
Restroom
Washroom
Powder room
Public comfort station
Ladies’ (gentlemen’s) room
Water-closet \ WC
Public conveniences

U-language
U-people (upper class)
Non-U people
Luncheon-lunch
Cycle- bike

Slang
Hitch-hiker
Guy
Sham
Smth or smb that is not true as it seems to be
Chap
Man
humbug
Smth or smb to deceive people

Phraseological synonyms
Words become identical in their meanings
but different in their combinability with other
words
To be late for a lecture - miss the train
To visit museum – to attend lectures
Teachers question students-
Judges interrogate witnesses

Contextual synonyms
Become synonyms only under some specific
distributional conditions
Buy -------get (not synonyms out of context)
BUT!
I’ll go to the shop and buy some bread.
I’ll go to the shop and get some bread.