Theoretical grammar of the Еnglish language. Syntax

THEME 1
UNITS OF SYNTAX. THE PHRASE
Outline
1. Inventory of syntactic units
2. Meaning of syntactic units
3. The phrase. Syntagmatic connections of words.
3.1. Phrase vs. sentence
3.2. Types of syntagmatic relations
4. Structural classifications of phrases

1. INVENTORY OF SYNTACTIC UNITS

The sentence:
In prescriptive (pedagogical, applied) grammar - a group of words that in writing starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.
In descriptive (theoretical, fundamental) grammar – the smallest communicative unit of a language.

The most important feature of the sentence is its predicativity:
the relation of the content of the sentence
to the situation of speech
(the communicative context)
as viewed by the speaker.
e.g.
The hunters are shooting. vs. the shooting of the hunters (agent? object? realis / irrealis? time?)

2. MEANING OF SYNTACTIC UNITS
All units of syntax are bilateral, i.e. they are a unity of form and content (meaning).
The meaning of a syntactic unit comprises:
the lexical meaning of words it is built of
cf. He walks in. - He checks in;
the grammatical meanings of words it is built of
cf. He walks in. - He walked in.
the syntactic meanings which are inherent in the syntactic structure (construction) itself.

Structures (constructions) are form-meaning correspondences that exist independently of particular words, i.e. they themselves carry meaning, and words receive additional meaning when used in them.
(1) Bees are swarming in the garden (=only part of it)
(2) The garden is swarming with bees (= the whole of it)
(1) I loaded hay onto the truck. (= there still may be room for more hay)
(2) I loaded the truck with hay. (= it is entirely filled)
(1) I am afraid to cross the road. (= I intend to)
(2) I am afraid of crossing the road. (= no intention of doing it is implied)

3. THE PHRASE. SYNTAGMATIC CONNECTION OF WORDS
3.1. Phrase vs. sentence
The phrase is a syntactic unit of a rank lower than that of the sentence. It is the object-matter of minor syntax.
Characteristic features of the phrase are “negative”:
it has no suprasegmental characteristics (intonation)
it does not perform the communicative function (predicativity)

3.2. Types of syntagmatic relations
morphology considers paradigmatic relations of words (the relations that exist between words in the language system, e.g. a student – students; a student's (pen) – students‘ (pens);
syntax studies syntagmatic relations of words, i.e. the relations between the words in a speech continuum.

Types of syntagmatic relations:
agreement (узгодження);
government (керування);
adjoining (прилягання);
enclosure / nesting (уключення)

government
The subordinate word is governed by the head word when its form is required by the head word but does not mirror it:
e.g.
saw him;
to whom it may concern;
depend on him

agreement
The components of a phrase or a sentence are said to agree when the form of the subordinate word is determined by the head word:
e.g.
this house --- these houses (number in demonstrative pronouns)
Tom runs. --- Tom and Mary run. (third person singular/plural, Present Simple)

adjoining
It is neither agreement, nor government, which are cases when the form of the subordinated word changes. When the elements are adjoined, there is no change of form:
e.g.
almost fainted;
nod one's head silently

enclosure/nesting
is a type of syntagmatic relation which is characteristic of English (but not of Ukrainian or Russian):
e.g.
a challenging task;
to never forget it

4. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONS
OF PHRASES
traditional: based on the part-of-speech status of their constituents;
alternative: based on the relations of their constituents

Structural classification of phrases
based on the part-of-speech status
of their constituents
According to this criterion, two types of phrases are distinguished:
phrases made up of notional words:
e.g.
N + N: a stone wall
Adj + N: a high wall
V + N: to see a wall
V + Adj: to see suddenly
Adv + Adj: surprisingly tall
Adv + Adv: very easily
phrases made of notional words and function words:
e.g.
in accordance with, due to, apart from, as soon as
Such phrases function as prepositions or conjunctions.

Structural classification of phrases based on the relations of their constituents
According to this principle, phrases are subdivided into kernel (ядерні) and non-kernel (без'ядерні).
In kernel phrases one element (the kernel, or the head) dominates the other(s):
e.g. a good job, famous doctors, sufficiently normal, to walk fast, to watch a man, slightly stiff, to be careful, to seem true;
The relations between the elements of kernel phrases can be attributive, complementary, adverbial or existential in their nature.

Kernel phrases with attributive relations can be regressive (the kernel follows other elements) or progressive (the kernel precedes them):

Regressive kernel phrases:
1. Adverbial kernel:
e.g. very carefully, fairy easily, more avidly
2. Adjectival kernel:
e.g. completely empty, entirely natural, emerald green, knee deep, ice cold, very much upset, almost too easily
3. Substantive kernel:
e.g. my book, his brother, this room, white blossom, real friendship, a mere trifle, world leaders, water power, kitchen window, wealthy city dwellers

Progressive kernel phrases:
1. Substantive kernel:
e.g. a candidate for the prize, the fruits of his labour, a number of students, any fact in sight, an action that could poison the plant, a child of five who has been crying, the road back, the man downstairs, problems to solve
2. Adjectival kernel:
e.g. available for study, rich in minerals, full of life, fond of music, easy to understand
3. Verbal kernel:
e.g. to smile a happy smile, to grin a crooked grin, to turn the page, to hear voices, to become unconscious
4. Prepositional kernel:
e.g. (to depend) on him, (to look) at them

In non-kernel phrases none of the elements are dominant.
independent non-kernel phrases (no context is needed in order to understand them);
dependent non-kernel phrases, which require a context in order to be understood.

Independent non-kernel phrases:
e.g. easy and simple, shouting and singing, she nodded
Words in an independent non-kernel phrase can belong to:
the same word-class:
e.g. men and women (syndetic joining), men, women, children (asyndetic joining)
different word-classes:
e.g. he yawned (a primary predication)

Dependent non-kernel phrases:
e.g. his own (dog), (send) him a letter
Words in a dependent non-kernel phrase can belong to:
the same word-class:
e.g. wise old (men), faded green (hat) (accumulative relation)
different word-classes:
e.g. his old (friend) (accumulative relation);
(to find) the car gone, (to see) the man leave,
(stumped out), his face red and wrathful (secondary predications)

THEME 2
THE SENTENCE
Outline
1. The definition of the sentence and its distinctive features
2. Aspects of the sentence: formal, semantic, functional
3. The structural classification of English sentences

Terms
ambiguous, ambiguity
covert
explicate
extralinguistic
instance, instantiation
pattern
token
construction
denotatum
distinctive feature
functional sentence perspective
mood, modality
referent situation
situation of speech / communicative situation
sentence onion
theme/rheme
The notional parts of speech in English are ___. *
0/1
N, V, Adj, Adv
N, V, Adj, Adv, Num, Prn
N, V, Adj, Adv, Num, Prn, Prep, Conj
N, V, Adj, Adv, Num, Prn, Prep, Conj, Interj
Correct answer
N, V, Adj, Adv, Num, Prn
The category of number of the English verb is confined to ___. *
0/1
modals
future forms of notional verbs
the verb "to be"
future forms of notional verbs and the verb "to be"
Correct answer
future forms of notional verbs and the verb "to be"
Degrees of comparison of English adjectives evaluate properties in relation to ____. *
0/1
some internal norm
intensity of the property
some other element of the sentence
the same property of some other substance
Correct answer
the same property of some other substance
What part of speech is "flower" in the phrase "flower shop"? *
0/1
part of an occasional composite word
noun
adlective
attribute
Correct answer
noun
The aspectual category of development of English verbs is neutralized with ____. *
0/1
statal verbs
limitive verbs
actional verbs
verbids
Correct answer
statal verbs
The grammatical category of ____ refers to the perspective at which the action is viewed by the speaker *
1/1
tense
aspect
voice
mood
According to its aspectual features, the verb "to start" is __. *
0/1
iterative
ingressive
durative
interminate
Correct answer
ingressive
Relations between the elements of the language system are called _____. *
0/1
paradigmatic
syntagmatic
distributional
transformational
Correct answer
paradigmatic
Morphology studies __.
1/1
the meaning of language units
contextual aspects of meaning
grammatical meaning of words
grammatical meaning of sentences
The types of morphemes according to their meaning are _. *
0/1
lexical, derivational and word-building
word-building, derivational and inflexional
lexical, derivational and form-building
word-building, inflexional and form-building
Correct answer
lexical, derivational and form-building

1. THE DEFINITION OF THE SENTENCE
AND ITS DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
sentence (Lat.) - ‘feeling’ or ‘opinion’
As a grammar term, a sentence is ‘an utterance that expresses a feeling or opinion’.
A more technical definition: ‘a grammatically self-contained speech unit consisting of a word, or a syntactically related group of words that expresses an assertion, a question, a command, a wish, or an exclamation; in writing it usually begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation mark.’

The term “sentence” is ambiguous since it refers to:
a specific type of syntactic construction,
a generalized pattern,
an abstraction
e.g. "Mr SVOMPT" – the formula of the English declarative sentence
a pattern filled with words
e.g. Harry (S) reviews (V) spelling rules (O) carefully (M) at home (P) every day (T).

In order to avoid this ambiguity,
a distinction between the sentence-type and sentence-token is drawn.
The sentence-type is a structural scheme which belongs to the language system.
The sentence-token is a structural scheme filled with words, a speech instantiation of a certain sentence-type.
A sentence-token in context is called an utterance.

The distinctive features of the sentence-token are traced its form and content.
form:
linguistic (characterize both spoken and written sentences);
paralinguistic (from Gr. pará – near, beside, past something) characterize only spoken sentences.
content:
the categories of predicativity, modality, etc.

According to its linguistic form, the English sentence is characterized by the fixed order of words, which sets it apart from a random succession of lexical items:
Cf.: Gentlemen, I shall be brief. vs. be shall gentlemen I brief;

Paralinguistic features of the sentence include:
- gestures,
- mimics,
- intonation (tune, pauses, sentence-stress, etc.)
Though all these contribute to differentiating sentence meaning (e.g., interrogative, declarative, imperative), only intonation is regarded as a distinctive paralinguistic feature of a sentence.

Among the grammatical categories that characterize the content plane of the sentence, predicativity occupies the main place.
Predicativity is the relation of the content of the sentence to the situation of speech as viewed by the speaker.

The relation of the denotatum of the sentence (the situation named / denoted by the sentence) to the situation in which the sentence is pronounced (the situation of speech) is expressed in a specific way.
The situation denoted by the sentence is processed by the human mind. A major result of this processing is shaping the idea of the situation as a proposition – a logical scheme which consists of the logical subject, logical predicate and the link between them: e.g. Jack (the logical subject/S) is (the link) a student (the logical predicate/P).
Thus the predicative relation calls for the presence of the logical subject and the logical predicate.
Their linguistic correlates are the syntactic subject and predicate, which form the predication of the sentence.

The syntactic meaning of predicativity is signaled:
- paralinguistically (by its intonation, which indicates completeness);
- by the morphological meanings of the verb:
- objective modality (mood);
- temporality (tense);
- personality (person), etc.
- by the lexical meanings of the verb:
- subjective modality (modal verbs)

Mood stands out among the morphological categories of the verb since it contributes into predicativity more than temporality or personality. As set out in the course of English morphology, the category of mood (or grammatical/ objective modality), finds its expression in the form of the verb which presents the referent situation as real or unreal.
Mood characteristics can be traced in any sentence, thus this category is obligatory for it.

A graphic illustration of the contribution of the verbal categories into the category of predicativity is the ‘sentence onion’ (a ‘hard core’ and many ‘layers’ around it): the farther away from the core is the corresponding ‘layer’, the greater is its role in expressing predicativity.

The outermost layer (1) represents the speaker’s subjective attitude to the event described (……………………………).
The next layer (2) represents the speaker’s objective evaluation of the event described (……………………………).
The next one (3) pertains to the speaker's perspective of viewing the situation described in the sentence (………………………….).
Layer (4) relates to the moment the event occurs (……………………..).
Layer (5) represents the time at which the event described is situated in relation to the speech act time or other events (………………….).
The innermost layer (6) concerns the internal progression of the event (………………………………………………..).
The core of the sentence onion (7) is formed by the subject-relational categories of the verb (………………… and ……………….).

2. ASPECTS OF THE SENTENCE: FORMAL, SEMANTIC, FUNCTIONAL
The sentence is set in a multiple system of coordinates.
Being a nominative unit, it possesses a form and a content. Hence, it can be characterized in its formal and semantic aspects.
Being a communicative unit, the sentence performs certain functions. Hence, it can be considered in it functional aspect.

1. The formal study of the sentence addresses the following issues:
ways in which the sentence differs from a linear succession of words;
the principles of its structural organization;
the formal markers of its semantic distinctions.

2. The semantic study of the sentence focuses on the following problems:
semantic categories of the sentence (predicativity, modality, etc.);
semantic features of its components – clauses, members of the sentence;
semantic characteristics of combinations of clauses;
the deep semantic structure of a sentence Ch. Fillmore points out that as opposed to the syntactic (surface) structure, the sentence has also a covert structure, or the role structure: it is formed by such categories as AGENT, EXPERIENCER, INSTRUMENT, OBJECT, SOURCE, GOAL, LOCATION, TIME, etc.

3. The functional aspects of the sentence relate to:
the communicative (functional) perspective of the sentence;
the pragmatic aspects of the sentence (its speech-act characteristics)

The communicative (functional) perspective of a sentence (V. Mathesius):
the theme (the starting point of the message which does not reflect the aim with which the sentence is uttered; contains the information on what the sentence is about)
the rheme (communicatively the main part of the sentence which relates to the aim with which the sentence is uttered; presents additional, new information)
Cf.:The best day to start is tomorrow – Tomorrow is the best day to start.

The pragmatic aspect of the sentence
concerns its speech act characteristics, i.e. the ability of a sentence to carry out socially significant acts, in addition to merely describing aspects of the world (J. Austin, J. Searle).
For example, the sentence Here she is! can be a mere statement of the fact, but it can also serve as a warning, an expression of emotion (surprise, irritation, disappointment, joy, etc.).

The sentence shall be further considered as a trichotomy of form, meaning and function.
Accordingly, distinction is drawn between such areas of syntactic theory as:
construction syntax,
semantic syntax,
functional syntax (communicative and pragmatic).
In sentence-tokens these aspects are inextricably linked, so the distinction is essentially a research convention.

3. THE STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH SENTENCES
Is Hey, you! a sentence or not?
The answer would depend on whether you take the meaning, the function or the form of the utterance as a starting point.
In the framework of this theme, we will classify English sentences on a structural basis in agreement with their semantic characteristics. Since predicativity is the constitutive feature of the sentence, it would be logical to use it as the basis for dividing English sentences into:
sentences proper (further on just sentences), which are predicative structures,
quasi-sentences, which do not have this categorial feature.

Types and subtypes of English sentences :

Characteristic features
of the types of sentences proper

Characteristic features
of the types of quasi-sentences

Declarative and interrogative sentences differ in their informational aspect: the former provide information, and the latter call for information.
The amount of information carried by declarative sentences varies.
e.g. I am asking that because I want to know as an answer to the question Why are you asking that? repeats the predicative part of the preceding sentence thus giving redundant information.

Declarative sentences can be positive or negative, i.e. they assert or negate the predicative link between the subject and the predicate.
We call a sentence negative only if negation concerns the predicate (the so-called "general negation"), e.g. You don't understand him at all.
Special negation can refer to any member of the sentence except the predicate, e.g. Not a person could be seen around.

Interrogative sentences are not "pure questions": they carry some information, which is called the presupposition of the question.
e.g. Why are you asking that? has a presupposition
;
Why have you murdered your wife? presupposes that the addressee has murdered his wife.

Interrogative sentences demonstrate a great variety of meanings, forms, and pragmatic functions. Due to that, only their most general features can serve as a basis for setting them apart:
a specific intonation contour;
the inverted order of words;
interrogative pronouns;
the information gap in the knowledge of the subject about the denotatum, etc.

Alternative questions do not form a special type. Alternativity can be brought both into general and special questions
e.g. Is it Peter or John? Who(m) do you like better, Peter or John?
Disjunctive (tag) questions are a variety of general questions.

Quasi-sentences are called "sentences" due to their:
ability to substitute a sentence (take its position in a speech chain);
discreteness;
- intonation properties.

Yet quasi-sentences cannot be said to have a full sentential status (hence the prefix quasi- from Lat. quasi – as if, like, almost): they can be embedded into a sentence as syntactically dependent elements which:
- do not have a nominative meaning (just evaluative);
- are context dependent, e.g. John! (amazement, indignation, approval, reproof);
are easily substituted by non-verbal signals,
e.g. John! Attracting attention: punch in the ribs, tap on the shoulder, clearing one's throat);
Well done! Phhh (Yak!) Good bye! Hi!
- can be combined, e.g. Oh, John! Hello Cliff!
- can be emotionally coloured (become exclamatory).

Exclamation is not a structural element of a sentence, i.e. it is optional.
Yet certain types of quasi-sentences demonstrate a tendency to being exclamatory (the conventionality of the exclamation mark), e.g. Dear sir! (Cf. Здравствуй, Аня!).

THEME 3
SIMPLE SENTENCE CONSTITUENTS
1. Types of sentence constituents
2. The system of English sentence members
2.1. The subject
2.2. The predicate
2.3. The object / complement
2.4. The (adverbial) modifier
2.5. The attribute

Key words
a sentence constituent
a clause / an elementary sentence
a sentence member / part /
member of the sentence
an independent / main clause
a dependent / subordinate clause
the head(-word)
the situation
environment (obligatory / optional)
ellipsis; elliptical
to omit, to be omitted
the subject
the predicate (simple verbal, complex verbal /nominal, phraseological)
the object (complement) (object-oriented, addressee-oriented, subject-oriented) (prepositionless / direct, prepositional)
the (adverbial) modifier
the attribute (prepositive, postpositive)
an inherent characteristic
a nominative sentence
blending / contamination
elaboration, elaborated

1. TYPES OF SENTENCE CONSTITUENTS
Explicating the structure of a declarative sentence is a two-step procedure:
segmenting the sentence into smaller components – sentence constituents;
clarifying the nature of links between them.

Sentence constituents
of the upper level – clauses / elementary sentences
the smallest predicative units of a language
of the lower level –members of the sentence / sentence members / sentence parts
are not characterized by predicativity;
can have the form of
a word (e.g. there, forgot)
a word-combination
(e.g. at the seaside, shall forget).

Some sentences consist of only one clause.
A clause expresses a whole event or situation with a subject/predicate structure.

Some sentences consist of two or more clauses;
these can be of the same type or of different types:

Types of clauses
independent / main – form a meaningful unit by themselves
subordinate / dependent – cannot stand on their own because they function as a constituent (subject, object, etc.) of another clause.

2. THE SYSTEM OF ENGLISH SENTENCE MEMBERS
Used in the syntagmatic chain, words are no longer viewed as parts of speech: they become sentence members.
The sentence member is a two-facet unit.
Content : its relation to other constituents in the syntagmatic chain.
Form (morphological, yet syntactically relevant) :
the part-of-speech status of the word it is represented by (in case the form is analytical, it is called the head, or head-word, e.g. on the beach)
the availability of function words which accompany the head
the position of the head in relation to other components of the sentence (e.g. They sunbathed on the beach)
its paralinguistic features (intonation), etc.

In other words, sentence members as syntactic entities are set in a different system of coordinates than their morphological correlates – parts of speech.
This system of coordinates is
the situation.

Object complements and modifiers can make obligatory or optional environment of the word that performs the predicative function.

Obligatory environment is an inherent syntactic characteristic of the word which functions as the predicate,
e.g.
to tell something (the truth/a lie);
to be subject to something (fits of anger)
Elements of the obligatory environment may be omitted (ellipsis), though this happens not often and not with all of them. Their implicit presence will be suggested,
e.g. Do you know about his divorce? He told me [about it].

Obligatory environment may serve to differentiate lexical/semantic variants of words:
Cf.:
She treated him. – She treated him like a child.
Her cheeks were full. – She was full of sympathy.

The optional environment of an element may remain unrealized in a sentence:
e.g.
adverbial modifiers of manner with the verbs of speech:
… said Mr. Bently reflectively.

Sentence members can be grouped together in the following way:
the subject – the predicate: these sentence members are interconnected yet syntactically independent from other members of the sentence;
the object (complement) – the (adverbial) modifier: these sentence members are both syntactically dependent upon the verb.
Though in some sentences the object complement may be adjective-dependent, it happens only in case the adjective functions as part of the predicate, e.g. She is very good at cooking.

the attribute: this sentence member is noun-dependent.
In contrast to other sentence members, it does not enter the structural scheme of the sentence, i.e. it is always optional.

subject
attribute
predicate
adverbial / modifier
object / complement
attribute
attribute
Relations of the sentence members

2.1. The subject is a syntactic correlate of the predicate. It performs :
- the categorial function – denoting the carrier of some predicative feature/s;
- the relational function – being the initial element in the syntagmatic succession of words making a sentence.
As a sentence member, the subject presupposes the presence of the predicate, even if the latter is elliptical:
e.g.
– Darling, you would be a marvelous dancer but for two things.
– What are they, sweetheart?
– Your feet [prevent you from being a marvelous dancer].

In a nominative sentence the noun cannot be said to perform the function of the subject: it is the element which combines the properties of the subject and the predicate,
e.g. Night.
The form of the predicate in English tends to be determined by the meaning of the subject, not its form:
e.g.
The Gang of Four has been discredited. (= the gang as a whole)
The Gang of Four have been discredited. (= the individual gang members)
The bread and cheese was brought and distributed.

2.2. The predicate performs the following functions:
the categorial function – predicating some feature/s to the subject;
the relational function – being the element which links the subject with the object complement and/or adverbial modifier.
The predicate is the hub around which the subject and the object rotate with the change of the speaker's perspective of viewing the referent situation (ACTIVE VOICE :: PASSIVE VOICE):
e.g.
The choir practiced a song. vs. The song was practiced by the choir.

Grammatical and lexical meanings:
- go together in simple verbal predicates: e.g. He reddened.
- go separate in:
- complex verbal predicates (an auxiliary verb + a notional verb):
e.g. He is sleeping.
- complex nominal predicates (a link verb/a copula + a noun/an adjective):
e.g. He is a student. He grew old.
- phraseological predicates formed according to the model FINITE VERB + DEVERBAL NOUN:
e.g. He gave a gasp / took a breath.

Predicates with the so-called "notional links" (e.g. The moon rose red) result from the process of syntactic blending (contamination):
e.g. The moon rose. (a simple verbal predicate) +
It was red. (a complex nominal predicate).
Cf. He grew old. # *He grew. + He was old.
Predicates of the above listed types can be elaborated by introducing modal and aspect markers which carry respective meanings:
e.g. I can give you a call. She kept chattering.

2.3. The object (complement) in English has the following varieties:
(1) Object-oriented complements denote the object of the action expressed by the verb. They come in two varieties:
- prepositionless /direct object-oriented complements:
e.g. He knows this. He saw me.
- prepositional object-oriented complements:
e.g. He knows of this. He looked at me.
(2) Addressee-oriented complements denote the person or object towards whom/which the action expressed by the verb is directed. There are two varieties of them, too:
- prepositionless /direct addressee-oriented complements:
e.g. She gave me a letter.
- prepositional addressee-oriented complements:
e.g. She gave a letter to me.
(3) Subject-oriented complements, related to the state of the person or object denoted by the word which functions as the subject, are taken by verbs in the passive form:
e.g. Mor was overcome with emotion. The house was covered with vine.

2.4. The (adverbial) modifier possesses a number of features which set it apart from the object complement.

2.5. The attribute is a noun-oriented part of speech (irrespective of the syntactic function of the latter).
Attributes in English fall into:
prepositive (e.g. visible stars, a stone wall);
postpositive (the stars visible).
Among the language units which can function as postpositive attributes there are grammatical idioms:
e.g.
It was a surprisingly competent story for a man his age.
Attributes can undergo syntactic expansion in English:
e.g. a young man, serious-faced and with the air of one born to command

The string of attributes of a noun can be quite long: in this case they are arranged according to the OPSHACOM formula:

THEME 4
COMPOSITE SENTENCE CONSTITUENTS: CLAUSES
1. Parataxis and hypotaxis
2. English composite sentence
2.1. Characteristic features
2.2. Classification

KEY WORDS
parataxis / coordination
hypotaxis / subordination
coordinative / subordinative link
mono-/polypredicative (unit)
initiating / continuing (element)
composite sentence: compound or complex
co-clause
fixed order
coordinate conjunction
correlative conjunction
conjunctive adverb
subordinator
colon
semi-colon
adverbial clause
attributive / adjective / adjectival / relative clause
restrictive / non-restrictive
subject clause
object clause
predicative clause
hierarchy
consecutive / successive subordination

1. PARATAXIS AND HYPOTAXIS
The composite sentence is a structural, semantic and functional unity of two or more monopredicative syntactic constructions – clauses.
Thus the composite sentence is a polypredicative syntactic unit.

Between the clauses in a composite sentence there is the same kind of relationship as between words in a phrase.
These relations can be those of coordination of the constitutive elements (parataxis) or of subordination (hypotaxis).

2. ENGLISH COMPOSITE SENTENCE
2.1. Characteristic features

2.2. Classification of English composite sentences
Composite sentences
Compound / complex sentences (3)
Complex sentences (2)
Compound sentences (1)

(1) Compound Sentences
A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses (sometimes called co-clauses) which are joined paratactically (i.e., by a coordinative link).
e.g.
Jason offered the girl his handkerchief (the initiating co-clause) and she took it without a moment’s hesitation (the continuing co-clause).

Clauses in a compound sentence have a fixed order, i.e. they cannot be moved without changing the overall meaning of the whole sentence.
Cf.:
Jason offered the girl his handkerchief and she took it without a moment’s hesitation.
?She took it without a moment’s hesitation and Jason offered the girl his handkerchief.

Coordinators

Another way to connect two clauses and form a compound sentence is to put a semi-colon (;) between the co-clauses:
e.g. Jason offered the girl his handkerchief; she took it without a moment’s hesitation.
To make the logical connection clear, the semi-colon is often followed by a word like therefore, besides, similarly called a conjunctive adverb.

It is not possible to change the order of the two clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb:
e.g. Whales have lungs instead of gills; therefore, they cannot breathe under water.
*Therefore, they cannot breathe under water; whales have lungs instead of gills.

Coordinate conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs have rather similar meanings
e.g. and and moreover express addition
so and therefore express result
Yet they are different grammatically.

Unlike a coordinate conjunction, a conjunctive adverb can be moved within the second clause:
e.g. Whales have lungs instead of gills; they therefore cannot breathe under water.
Whales have lungs instead of gills; they can therefore not breathe under water.
Whales have lungs instead of gills, so they cannot breathe under water.
* Whales have lungs instead of gills, they can so not breathe under water.

(2) Complex Sentences
Clauses in a complex sentence (the principal / main clause and the sub-clause/s) are joined by subordination (hypotaxis), which is a way of linking dependent grammatical elements.
e.g.
Often tell your kids (the principal clause) how terrific they are (the sub-clause).

Subordinators

Adverbial clauses

Adverbials may occupy different positions in a sentence:
e.g. Because they have lungs instead of gills, whales cannot breathe under water.
If you are not sure whether a clause functions as adverbial, you can try moving it

ATTRIBUTIVE / ADJECTIVE / ADJECTIVAL / RELATIVE CLAUSES

Relative clauses can be left out:
Consider the sentence below and say if its clauses are of a similar status:
e.g. John, who always kicks the ball hard, is the player who scores the most.

RESTRICTIVE AND NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
The book that she read was important for her literature review. (restrictive)
The participants who were interviewed volunteered to be part of the study. (restrictive)
Walden University, which is entirely online, has main administrative offices in Baltimore and Minneapolis. (nonrestrictive)

SUBJECT, OBJECT, AND PREDICATIVE CLAUSES
Since these are obligatory parts of a sentence, there is no complete main clause left when they are left out.

One way to tell if the dependent clause functions as subject or object is to replace the whole clause with the word it.
e.g.
That John kicks the ball hard is common knowledge.
It is common knowledge.
We all know that John kicks the ball hard.
We all know it.

Complex sentences may have a hierarchy of clauses, i.e. be characterized by consecutive, or successive subordination:
The teacher realized (the principal clause)
that the class did not understand the rule (the 1st sub-clause)
which had just been explained to them (the 2nd sub-clause which is subordinated to the 1st one).
John reported that Mary told him that Fred had said the day would be fine.

(3) Compound / Complex and Complex / Compound Sentences
It is also possible to have a compound sentence with complex parts, or a complex sentence with compound parts. We will call both types compound-complex sentences.
e.g.
Mr. Bloomberg was very proud (the principal clause) when he heard about his son’s success (the sub-clause) but at the same time he knew (the principal clause) that it was just luck (the sub-clause)
The headmaster told the teachers (the principal clause) that Weekly Reviews were to be written on Fridays (the 1st sub-clause) and that they should be marked by Mondays (the 2nd sub-clause).
I don't mind if you leave as soon as you're finished as long as you're back when I need you.

The following example of a compound-complex sentence has two complete main clauses connected by the coordinate conjunction and. Each of these has a dependent clause.

THEME 5
SEMANTIC SYNTAX
Outline
1. The logical structure of the sentence
2. The deep semantic structure of the sentence (semantic roles)

Key terms
proposition
predicate
argument
participant
semantic role
deep structure
valence
case frame
agent
object
patient / undergoer
addressee
recipient / beneficiary
counteragent / reciprocant
experiencer
elementative
instrument
means
source
stimulus
goal
location

1. THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE
The logical description of the sentence is aimed at establishing the connection between
the sentence structure and
the structure of thought
e.g. "subject", "predicate", "copula" are originally logical terms.

2. THE DEEP SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF THE SENTNCE
the late 1960s
Ch. Fillmore
deep structure valence descriptions for verbs
These "case frames" specified the semantic roles of the nominals which could occur with a given verb (e.g. agent, object, instrument, source, goal, etc.).