Britain, the European Union, and Brexit

Britain and the EU: a legacy of strained relations
1957: Treaty of Rome is signed
France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, six founding members of the European Economic Community (the Common Market), sign the Treaty of Rome, but Britain withdraws from early talks.
1963, 1967: the UK’s two unsuccessful applications to join the EEC
With its economy flagging, Britain makes its first attempt to join the Common Market but is vetoed by France. The French President Charles de Gaulle says that a number of aspects of Britain's economy make Britain “incompatible with Europe”, and accuses Britain of a “deep-seated hostility” towards the European project.
1973: Britain joins the EEC
With de Gaulle out of office, Britain is allowed into the European Economic Community at last, but within a year calls for major reform of Common Agricultural Policy as well as changes in the way the budget is financed.
1975: EEC referendum
Harold Wilson’s Labour government holds a referendum over EEC membership in which two thirds of British voters say they want to stay in.

1984: Margaret Thatcher wins a rebate* from Brussels in row over contributions
A key victory for Mrs Thatcher. She had threatened to stop contributions because Britain was receiving far less in agricultural subsidies than some other members, notably France.
*a partial refund to someone who has paid too much for tax, rent, or a utility
1997: Single European Currency
Britain declares it will not be joining the euro.
2007: The Lisbon Treaty signed (amending the two previous treaties which form the constitutional basis of the EU, and creating the EU in its current form)
Labour Prime Minister Gordon Brown misses a televised ceremony of leaders signing the treaty, leaving Foreign Secretary David Miliband to sign it instead. (Brown signed the document at a lunch for heads of state and government later the same day.)
2013: Cameron makes referendum pledge
David Cameron promises an “In-Out” referendum if he wins the 2015 general election, which he does. He reiterates his manifesto commitment to hold a referendum before the end of 2017.
23 June 2016: Referendum
In a close-run vote, the British public decides to exit the European Union (by a margin of 3.8%). An emotional David Cameron resigns as Prime minister the next day.
29 March, 2017: new Conservative Prime minister, Theresa May, triggers Article 50 which starts the clock on the process of the UK leaving the EU.
26 June, 2017: formal negotiations on withdrawal begin between the UK and the EU.

Over 2.5 years of painful negotiations; Theresa May’s Withdrawal Bill repeatedly defeated in the House of Commons. Brexit Day, initially set for 29 March 2019, is later moved to 31 October 2019, and finally to 31 January 2020
Major issues: payment of the UK’s “divorce bill”; the UK’s future trade relationships with the EU; the Irish border; EU citizens’ rights.
“soft Brexit” vs. “hard Brexit”
“cakeism”; “cherry-picking”
12 December 2019: the UK’s general election is won convincingly by Boris Johnson’s Conservatives, who gain an 80-seat majority. Boris Johnson heads the negotiations, and proposes a new Brexit deal
23 January 2020: The UK’s EU Withdrawal bill becomes law, after a relatively smooth passage through parliament compared to the earlier havoc.
29 January 2020: The European Parliament approves the Brexit divorce deal.
31 January 2020: Brexit day: the UK officially leaves the EU at midnight CET (11 p.m. UK time) and enters a transition period
February 1: An 11-month transition phase begins, running to December 31, 2020, after which a new economic and political relationship between the UK and the EU starts.

The Brexit process, according to The Daily Express

Britishness and the European Union

The Leave campaign groups: Vote Leave; Leave.EU
Nigel Farage backtracks on Leave campaign's '£350m for the NHS' pledge hours after result
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-result-nigel-farage-nhs-pledge-disowns-350-million-pounds-a7099906.html

The Remain campaign groups : Britain Stronger in Europe (nicknamed “Project Fear”); LabourIN
a vote to leave – a “leap in the dark”
a shock to the economy and the job market
impoverishment of households
savings and pensions losing their value
mortgage costs going up
increased risk of terrorist attacks
destabilisation of Europe
….
NB: for some major aspects of the two campaigns, refer again to the articles discussed in the seminar on British newspapers.

The Referendum results, 23 June 2016
Turnout: 72.2%

Age, educational attainment and national identity
as voting factors

Voters by social class

Voters by political party support
and sociocultural values

Reasons for the Referendum results – an amalgam of economic, political, demographic, cultural factors, with an element of chance
Britain’s traditional, deep-seated Euroscepticism; decades of increasing hostility to the European project in the United Kingdom, reinforced in recent years by a rise in nationalist sentiment, particularly in England.
Deteriorating economic conditions after 2008: rise in unemployment, widening poverty gap, economic deprivation in former manufacturing areas; the Conservative government’s austerity policies (shrinking social spending and government support for economically vulnerable individuals and communities).
→ the protest vote of the "left-behind voters"
Chronic problems of the Welfare State.
Growing anxieties about EU immigration and anger against the EU’s perceived failure to deal adequately with the waves of refugees from the Middle East crossing its borders.
Growing fears of terrorist attacks facilitated by the EU’s open borders policies.
Frustration with Brussels’ red-tape and the spreading web of regulations, constricting Britain’s economic and social freedom.
Perceptions of the EU as a threat to authentic British identity.

Campaigns based on scaremongering, appealing to emotions, exaggerations and outright lies, rather than rational, informed debate. (See again The Guardian and The Independent articles discussed at the seminar on the British press.)
Lack of unity and coordination among different groups of “Remainers”; Jeremy Corbyn’s inadequate campaigning, unclear message and display of lukewarm support for remaining in the EU.
Disillusionment with the political elite among white working-class voters –
“the left behind”, again.
Growing value divides over national identity, multiculturalism, liberalism, immigration.
Rise of the UKIP, mobilizing “the left behind”.
The long-term populist, nationalist, Europhobe, anti-immigrant propaganda of the tabloid press.
Populism: in political science, the idea that society is separated into two groups at odds with one another – "the pure people" and "the corrupt elite", and the political approach of supporting the rights and power of the people in their struggle against a privileged elite. Focus on the strong, charismatic leader who can solve the problems of “the people”.
(Read “Brexit: Causes and Consequences” by Prof. Matthew J. Goodwin)
Misinformed / ignorant voters

Common voters’ comments on the referendum results
Reasons to leave? … Being bled dry by the EU and the fact that we are sick to death of MPs allowing unfettered immigration and walking round our own towns and supermarkets listening to jabba jabba do of foreign tongue in both ears. And production is down because of the use of unskilled cheap foreign labour.
Many people didn't like it that foreigners were coming here, harvesting our fruit and veg for us, healing our sick and caring for our elderly. They wanted these jobs to be done by British people (but not themselves, of course). They said the foreigners put a strain on public services, although some public services would hardly survive without them. Even so, these voters won the argument.

The response of the tabloid press

Major consequences of Brexit
Destabilization of the pound, fluctuating prices
Big international companies relocating their operations
Britain’s economy: lagging behind that of the eurozone
Erecting trade barriers which will affect negatively the UK’s commercial relations with its neighbours and the rest of the world
Uncertainty about the status of EU citizens living and working in Britain
Uncertainty about the status of students from the EU and the fees they pay; also – impact on the universities themselves
Uncertainty about the rights of expatriate Britons living on the Continent
Threat to the Union: a second referendum on Scottish independence?
The Irish border: a major problem
Division in the Cabinet and the Shadow Cabinet; split within the Labour and the Conservative parties

Accelerated polarization of society:
university-educated cosmopolitans vs. poorly qualified nationalists
socially liberal youth vs. socially conservative pensioners
diverse, multicultural, outward-looking cities vs. introspective small towns and declining industrial regions
Strengthening anti-immigration parties across Europe and opening for the rise of radical right-wing populist movements and parties
Ripple effects throughout Europe: other EU countries might demand their own referenda on leaving the EU
European institutions – able to function more smoothly and efficiently without Britain? A wake-up call for the EU to reform and improve?

Long-term lessons for politicians and society as a whole
The dangers of systematically ignoring the needs and interests of large parts of the population; the need for governments to focus their attention on supporting those who feel disenfranchised
The traps of populism
The social and moral responsibility of the media to stimulate meaningful, balanced debate, and not to stir up hostility through acting upon people’s anxieties
The need for civic education in order to create well-informed, responsible voters
The risk of resorting to referendums (direct democracy) in cases of such immense complexity, requiring specialist expertise
The need for the political system to address more adequately the voters’ concerns with immigration, and to decide how the benefits from immigration are shared with the wider electorate in the form of investment in public goods and infrastructure.