2 3 лекция syntax

Syntax
deals with word combinations and sentences, the arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts.

A sentence is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.
Oxford Dictionary

The sentence expresses a complete message.
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A group of words,usually containing a verb,
that expresses a thought in the form of
a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and starts witha capital letter when written.
Cambridge Dictionary

Non-sentence utterances are:
1. Vocatives: Charles! Mr.West!
2. Yes-no answers.
3. Interjections: Hi! Dear me!
4. Conversational formulas: Thank you. Bye-bye.

The proposition of sentences
A sentence is a group of words that are put together to mean something. A sentence is the basic unit of language which expresses a complete thought. It does this by following the grammatical basic rules of syntax.
A complete sentence has at least a subject and a main predicate to state (declare) a complete thought.

A sentence belongs to grammar, the grammar belongs to syntax.
A sentence consists of 5 members:
subject
predicate
object
attribute
adverbial modifier
Kate decided to go with her sister to the zoo today.

THE FORMS OF THE SUBJECT
Noun or pronoun: Kate (she) comes soon.
Adjective: The rich become richer.
Number: Two friends refused to come.
Gerund: Reading is interesting.
Infinitive: To drive in a big city is dangerous.
That clause:That he can drive was known to everyone.
Relative clause: Whatever he helped them was taken into consideration (who, which, whoever, whatever, whichever).
It was known by everyone that he had traveled the world.It is raining

The simple verbal predicate
is a predicate expressed by a finite form of the verb in any tense, voice, aspect, person, number, and mood.
I write a letter. Write (present tense, active voice, indefinite aspect ,I person, Imdicative mood,singular form)
The compound verbal predicate consists of:
a) a modal verb combined with an aspect:
I can speak.
b) verbs: I want to read.
c) stative verbs: She began to cry.

The compound nominal predicate consists of a link-verb and a predicate ( the nominal part of the predicate).
Noun: The unit of resistance is an ohm. (Единицей сопротивления является ом).
Adjective: The peaceful coexistence of different social systems is possible .
(Мирное сосуществование различных социальных, систем возможно).
Numerals: The mass of an electron is 1/1830 that of a hydrogen atom.
(Масса электрона составляет 1/1830 массы атома водорода).

Pronoun : The street is mine, the houses are mine. Улица — моя, дома — мои. (В. Маяковский)
Adverb : The lesson is over. Урок окончен.
She is out. Ее нет (она вышла).
Infinitive:The thing to do now," he said, "is to close up, go home, and sleep." "Вот что надо сделать сейчас,—сказал он,—закончить работу, пойти домой и лечь спать".
Participle All the doors of the laboratories and classrooms were closed and locked.
Все двери лабораторий и аудиторий были закрыты и заперты.
Gerund, Our aim is mastering English.
Наша цель—овладеть английским языком.

Subject and predicate co – ordination
AGREEMENT in person and number: Water has the least volume at 4'C.
Solid bodies have a definite form and volume.
If the subject is anyone, none, everything,
everybody e.t.c. the predicate is in singular form
Everybody knows it. -- Все знают это.
Either of the rubber rods is attracted by a glass rod.

The subject is gerund or infinitive, the predicate is in singular form:
Melting takes place at the temperature called melting point. Плавление происходит при - температуре, называемой точкой плавления.
If the subject is collective noun the predicate uses as plural form as singular form depends on the purpose of the speech
A woman tried to fight her way back to the thick of the crowd... but the crowd was helpless. Какая-то женщина пыталась пробиться сквозь толпу..., но толпа не могла расступиться (букв.: была беспомощной).
The fleeing crowd were scattered by the mounted police. -- Бегущая толпа была рассеяна конной полицией.

Three criteria for identifying subjects in English
Subject-verb agreement: The subject agrees with the finite verb in person and number, e.g. I am writing.
2. Position occupied: The subject typically immediately precedes the finite verb in declarative clauses in English, e.g. Tom laughs.
3. Semantic role: A typical subject in the active voice is an agent or theme, i.e. it performs the action expressed by the verb or when it is a theme, it receives a property assigned to it by the predicate.

OBJECT
Traditional grammar defines the object in a sentence as the entity that is acted upon by the subject.
THREE TYPES OF OBJECTS:
Direct object: I sent a letter.
Indirect object: I gave her flowers.
Prepositional object: They are waiting for a friend.

OBJECT MAY BE EXPRESSED
Noun or pronoun: I see Kate (her).
That clause: We remembered that we had read this chapter Bare clause: We remembered we had read this chapter.
For clause:We are not responsible for what the did.
Interrogative pronoun clause: They said what had happened (who, which, what whoever, whatever, whichever, if ,whom). It is the question to whom she said.
.Gerund clause: I stopped talking to him.

Infinitive: I stopped to talk to him.
Cataforic IT. I knew it that was said by him.
Adjective: I see the poor.
Number : I see two of them.

ATTRIBUTES (adjective clause), TYPES OF ATTRIBUTES
AN ATTRIBUTE qualifies a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified NOUN: TABLE LAMP
NOUN WITH PREPOSITION: QUESTION UNDER INVESTIGATION
AN ADJECTIVE : A CLEVER BOY.
NUMBER: THREE STUDENTS.
PRONOUN: HER CHILD.
POSSESSIVE : PROFESSOR’S REMARK
PARTICIPLE I: THE READING BOY.
PARTICIPLE II: THE WRITTEN BOOK.
GERUND: THE BOOK FOR READING.
INFINITIVE: THE LETTER TO WRITE.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS:( that ,what, who,whom, whose, when, where, which):
The girl who was standing near me is my sister.

There two types of adjective clause:
Identifying ( without comma)
The person, who was standing near you is my brother.
Modifying (with comma)
Mr.Smith, who lives next door, works at the university.
NOUN +WHEN, WHERE,WHOM and WHICH
She entered the university where he studied.
I was at Boston where the world’s best university is based.
She failed her exams, which she passed in falling term.
The singer, about whom knows everybody, will come to our city.

ADVERBIAL MODIFIER CLAUSES OR SUBORDINATE CLAUSES:
The adverbial modifier also defines an action or
other attribute in a qualitative or quantitative sense
Adverbial Modifier of Place (where)
I said it where we were at the restaurant.
2. Adverbial Modifier of Time (when,while)
I said it when the shout.
3. Adverbial Modifier of reason(because, since)
I said it because he was wrong.

Adverbial Modifier of Purpose (so that)
I decided to enter a university that is why I go Moscow.
Adverbial Modifier of contrast (although, whereas) Although I love meat, I eat it rarely.
Adverbial Modifier of condition( if )
If he had been the Ministry he would have changed.

Place. This modifier describe the place or direction WHERE the action happened.
He found himself in a lonely street.
Time. This modifiers describe the time WHEN the action happened.
For more than 5 years she has been living there.
Reason, cause. This modifiers describe situation WHY the action happened.
The airplane was detained because of the fog.

of comparison
e.g. She sat still like a statue. He was as ugly as a monkey.
of consequence
e.g. He is clever enough to understand it. She was too tired to go for a drive.
of concession
e.g. Whatever the reason, she should have come. Though tired, he agreed to accompany us.
of condition
e.g. To look at her you wouldn't believe she was a famous actress. He said he would do it if necessary.
of exception
e.g. He had no choice but to obey the orders.

Participle I. Reading this book I face with facts.
Gerund: In reading this book I face with facts.
Infinitive: To drive in a big sity one should be experiences.
Complete adverbial modifier
Remember a holiday of mine being ruined by our paying attention to the weather report of our local newspaper .
The weather was too cold for the children to have a walk .
The weather being fine, the airplane started. -

ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
SENTENCES MAY BE:
/ \
SIMPLE COMPOSITE / \
COMPOUND cOMPLEX
/ \
Semi-compound semi -complex

ANALYSE SENTENCES from the point of clause :
I said it where we were at the restaurant
where we were at the restaurant –subordinative clause; place clause.
Where – place conjunction
You can go only if you are back by evening.
When he comes in, tell her I want to speak to her.
Although I know him I do not want to talk to him.
This is the problem which we are having at that moment.
He is the man who wrote back to me.
This is a problem which occurs regularly.
He likes fried rice while I prefer boiled.
I’ll take my shoes off so as not to dirty the carpet.

SYNTAGMATIC AND PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS
Ferdinand de Saussure:
Intralinguistic relations that exist between words are basically of two types:
syntagmatic
paradigmatic.

SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS:
syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words.
are the relationships that a linguistic unit has with other units in the stretch of speech in which it occurs.
He could not get the piano through the door

PARADIGMATIC REALTIONS -
are the relations that a linguistic unit modification according to context.
He writes the book.
The book was written by me.
I see the written book.
I see the writing boy in front of the blackboard.
I wrote a book.

GOVERNMENT
In grammar and theoretical linguistics, government or rection refers to the relationship between a word and its dependents. One can discern between at least three concepts of government: the traditional notion of case government, the highly specialized definition of government in some generative models of syntax, and a much broader notion in dependency grammars.
I read quickly not I read quick. Hot enough not enough hot.

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE
1 SIMPLE
2 COMPOUND
3 COMPLEX (SUBORDINATIVE CLAUSE AND THE MAIN OR PRINCIPLE CLAUSE)
AFTER I READ THE BOOK (SC) ,I RETURNED IT(MC)
After reading the book
4 SEMI-COMPOUND
5 SEMI-COMPLEX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCES
The simple sentence consists of one subject-predicate unit.
IT MAY BE:
a) UNEXTENDED PATTERNS (those with no secondary parts).
For example:The child laughed. Mary is a nurse.
b) EXTENDED PATTERNS by obligatory elements.
For example: The child caught the ball. John lives in London.
If one of these extending elements is omitted the sentence is incomplete.
c) EXTENDED PATTERNS by optional elements.
For example: The child laughed merrily. My friend Mary is a very kind nurse.

SIMPLE SENTENCE
CONSISTS OF A SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
I READ THE BOOK
He wrote a letter.
They are sitting at the conference.
I conducted the lecture.
He has been twice in England.
I shall go to the University
I have been waiting for you.

A one-member sentence
contains only one principal part which is neither the subject nor the predicate.
NOMINAL sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun;
For example: Silence. Summer. Midnight (unextended).
English spring flowers! (extended)
VERBAL one-member sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, either an infinitive or a gerund.
For example: To think of that!
Living at the mercy of a woman!

AN ELLIPTICAL TWO-MEMBER SENTENCE
is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the subject and the predicate positions are omitted.
“Where are you going?” ― “To the library”.
“Who lives in that house ?” ― “John and Mary”.
Looks like rain.
See what I mean?
You sure?
Children not admitted.
No smoking here.

THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
The composite sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more clauses, and therefore containing two or more subject-predicate groups. In its structure a clause is similar to a simple sentence, but unlike a simple sentence it forms part of a bigger syntactical unit.
Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively.
Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank.
COMPOSITE SENTENCE
/ \
COMPOUND COMPLEX

Compound sentences
The compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination.
(1)I HAD READ THE BOOK AND (2)I RETURNED TO THE LIBRARY.
THIS SENTENCE CONSISTS OF TWO INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

SEMI-COMPOUND
I HAD READ THE BOOK AND RETURNED IT.
I WROTE A LETTER AND SENT IT.
The story was amusing, but nobody laughed.
The conjunctions while and whereas specialize in expressing contrastive relations:
Peter is an engineer, while his brother is a musician.
She was familiar with the petty social problems, and they bored her.
You can join us at the station, or we can wait for you at home.
The correlative either emphasizes the exclusion of one of the alternatives.
Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
function as different parts of the sentence (subject, predicative, object, apposition, attribute, adverbial modifier).
Subordinate clauses can be classified under three headings: a) nominal (or noun) clauses (clauses functioning as nouns in various syntactical positions);
b) attributive (or relative) clauses;
c) adverbial modifier clauses,
d) objective clauses.

The Complex Sentence
Complex sentences can be formed by joining subordinate clauses to the main clause with conjunctions or conjunctive words (syndetically) or without them (asyndetically). The first one is called the main (or principal) clause, the second is the subordinate clause.
For example: (2)AFTER I HAD READ THE BOOK (1)I RETURNED IT.
THIS SENTENCE CONSISTS OF AN INDEPEN-ENT (1) CLAUSE AND DEPENDENT OR SUBORDINATIVE CLAUSE (2).

SEMI-COMPLEX SENTENCES
Having read the book, I returned it.
After reading the book I returned it.
On reading the book I returned it.

CONJUCTIONS
are the formal signals of subordination the only function of which is to link clauses and express the relation between them (that, because, through, in order that, as far as, if only, etc.).
For example:
Everybody knows that money doesn’t grow on trees.

CONJUCTIVE WORDS
which are used to join nominal clauses combine two functions: to link clauses and to be a part in the subordinate clause (who, what, when, why, where, etc.).
For example:
Do you realize how far it is to Hawaii?

SUBORDINATIVE CONJUCTIONS:
after, although, as, because, before, for,how, however, if,in case, in oRder that, once, since, that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, which, while, whilst, whoever, whose

3. DISJUNCTIVE CONNECTION
denotes choice, usually between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either ... or, the conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise. For example:
You can join us at the station, or we can wait for you at home.
The correlative either emphasizes the exclusion of one of the alternatives.
Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you.

4. CAUSATIVE-CONSECUTIVE COORDINATION
joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other ― a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for.
For example:
The days became longer, for it was now springtime.
A causative clause may be also joined asyndetically.

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO COMMUNICATION
AFFIRMATIVE/ DECLARATIVE
I COMPILED TESTS.
INTERROGATIVE
DID I COMPILE TEST?
NEGATIVE
I DID NOT COMPILE SENTENCES.
EXLAMATARY
I COMPILED TESTS!
IMPERATIVE GO OUT!

Declarative sentences
form the bulk of monological speech and the greater part of conversation. A statement may be positive (affirmative) or negative.
For example: I have just come from a business trip.
I haven’t seen my sister yet.
A statement can be emphasized by the auxiliary verbs do, does, did put in front of the base form of the verb.
For example: I do feel sorry for Roger.
For example: I wonder why he is so late.
You mustn’t talk back to your parents.

Interrogative sentences
A GENERAL QUESTION opens with a verb operator (an auxiliary, modal or link verb) followed by the subject. It is characterized by the rising tone.
For example: Does it hurt much? Can you speak French?
A TAG QUESTION is usually done when you expect the person you are addressing to agree with you or confirm your statement. For example: It is quite warm, isn’t it? ― positive statement+negative tag
You didn’t know I was an artist, did you? ― negative statement + positive tag
I’m controlling it, aren’t I? ― note the negative tag with “I”.
Come into the kitchen,will you? ― to make your order sound less forceful
Nobody had bothered to do this, had they? ― note the use of the plural pronoun in the tag

AN ALTERNATIVE QUESTION
or an “either-
” question, implies a choice between two or more alternative answers.
For example: Do you like your coffee white or black? ― Black, please.
Will you have your whisky, or do you want dinner straight away? ― Whisky.

SPECIAL, or wh- questions
open with an interrogative pronoun or a pronominal adverb the function of which is to get more detailed or exact information about a particular person, thing, place, reason, method, or amount.
For example: What am I going to do without you?
Who discovered this?
Where do you think he is now?
Which is the best restaurant? (which is used when there is a
limited choice).
When are going to go there.

SUGGESTIVE, or declarative, questions form a peculiar kind of “yes-no” questions.
For example: You’re working late tonight?
Suggestive questions are used:
1) when we want to confirm something,
2) when we want to express surprise,
3) as leading questions to get exact information,
4) in echo-questions repeating the structure of the statement that came before.
For example: He said you were a very good teacher. ― He said that?
The use of indefinite pronouns and adverbs has a positive orientation (unless negation is meant).
For example: You have something to tell me? ― Just a few words.

Imperative sentences
Express commands. Besides commands proper imperative sentences may express prohibition, a request, an invitation, a warning, persuasion, etc.
For example: Let’s not quarrel about trifles.
Somebody switch off light.
Silence, please (a verbless command).
Don’t be afraid of them.
Speak louder, please.
Would you do me a favour?
Let Philip have a look at it.
Let’s go outside.
Don’t let’s quarrel about trifles.

Exclamatory sentences
Exclamatory sentences express ideas emphatically.
For example: What a funny story she told us!
How beautiful her voice is!
How I hate posters!
What a situation!
Isn’t it funny!
Doesn’t she sing beautifully!
If only I were young again!
Fire!( one-member sentence)
To think that she should have said so!