Expressive means of a language (EMs)

(1) Isn't she cute!
(2) Fool that he was!
(3) This goddam window won't open!
(4) We buddy-buddied together.
(5) This quickie tour didn't satisfy our curiosity.

(1) Mr. Smith was an extremely unpleasant person.
(2) Never will he go to that place again.
(3) In rushed the'soldiers!
(4) It took us a very, very long time to get there.

What is a stylistic device?
A SD is a conscious and intentional literary use of some facts of the language (including expressive means) with the purpose of further intensification of the emotional or logical emphasis contained in the corresponding expressive means.

Examples of SDs
a) Andrew’s face looked as if it were made of a wrotten apple (simile).
b) She gave him her best go-to-hell look (phrase epithet).
c) Her family is one aunt about a thousand years old (hyperbole).
d) I looked at the gun, and the gun looked at me (chiasmus).

Convergence of EMs and SDs
… And heaved and heaved, still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as if its vast tides were a conscience
(H.Melville. Moby Dick).

Convergence of EMs and SDs
in H.Melville’s phrase
1. Inversion
2. Repetition
3. Polysyndeton
4. Rhythm
5. Neologism
6. Expressive epithet «vast»
7. An unusual comparison: tides - conscience

CONVERGENCE
Ex.: Define the EMs and SDs in this example.
Sara was a menace and a tonic, my best enemy; Rozzie was a disease, my worst friend. (J.Gary. The Horse’s Mouth).

Check yourselves
1) Parallel constructions.
2) Antithesis: enemy-friend, worst - best.
3) Antonymical metaphors: tonic - disease.
4) Violation of usual combinability: instead of best friend we read best enemy, worst friend
Stylistic function: deep contradictory rela-tions inside a love triangle are portrayed.

Examples of stylistic devices
Phonostylistics
onomatopoeia, alliteration, use of regional accents
Lexical stylistics
archaisms, neologisms, slogans
recurring imagery through metaphor
juxtaposition of close synonyms to imply subtle differences in meaning, or to reinforce
Syntax stylistic
tenses, word order, use of pronouns
complexity, esp. juxtaposition of e.g. long and short sentence, deliberate violation of normal syntactic conventions

Phonetic EMs
1. Onomatopoeia
Direct onomatopoeia: buzz (sounds of bees); hiss (snakes); bow-wow (dogs); mew/miaow and purr (cats); hoink (pigs); baa-baa (sheep); cackle (chickens); quack (ducks); cuckoo; caw (crows); woo (cows). It may also be imitation of other natural noises: bubble (буль­кать); rustle (шуршать); splash (плескаться)\flop (шлепнуть­ся); whistle (свистеть); giggle, chuckle (хихикать, хмыкать); roar (реветь); tinkle (звякнуть); ding-dong Jingle (= звенеть), click (щелкать), tick, tick-tuck (тикать); bang, slap, rap, tap (звук удара), etc.
Indirect onomatopoeia ("echo writing”): And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain. (E. A. Poe) -the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain.

2. Alliteration - the repeating of the same or very similar consonant sounds usually at the beginnings of words that are close together
Betty Botta bought some butter. “But,” said she, “this butter’s bitter.”
3 Consonance - the repeating of final consonants after different vowel sounds in words that are close together
East and west dug the dog…
4. Assonance - the repetition of the same or similar vowels only
My shoes show signs of wear and tear; the wear and tear of city life).
“… Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden,
I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore… (E. A. Poe)”

5. RHYME is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words.
The identity of sound
Full rhymes
heart - part
Incomplete rhymes
vowel rhymes : flesh - fresh -press.
consonant rhymes: worth - forth, tale - tool -treble - trouble; flung - long.
Morphological characteristics
Eye-rhyme
love - prove, flood - brood, have - grave
Broken (compound) rhyme
“upon her honour - won her", "bottom –forgot them- shot him”

RHYME -2
The way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza:
couplets – when the last words of 2 successive lines are rhymed – aa;
cross rhymes – перекрёстные - abab;
framing or ring rhymes – опоясывающие - abba.
The rhyme position:
e.g. internal rhyme – the rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line:
“I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.” (Shelley)

By the type of the stressed syllable we distinguish
the male rhyme (мужская рифма), when the stress falls on the last syllable in the rhymed lines,
the female rhyme (женская рифма), when it falls on the last but one syllable:
When the lamp is shattered (female rhyme)
The light in the dust lies dead', (male rhyme)
When the cloud is scattered, (female)
The rainbow’s glory is shed, (male) (PB. Shelley)

A slumber did my spirit seal; (a)
I had no human fears: (b)
She seemed a thing that could not feel (a)
The touch of earthly years, (b) (W. Wordsworth)
alternate rhymes {перекрестные рифмы), with the pattern abab:

Much have I travelled in the realms of gold, (a)
And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; (b)
Round many western islands have I been (b)
Which bards in fealty (= loyalty) to Apollo hold, (a) (J. Keats)
enclosing rhymes (охватные, опоясанные рифмы), with the pattern abba:

Rhythm
Rhythm is the musical quality of language produced by repetition, especially in poetry (also called “verse”). Many literary elements create rhythm, including alliteration, assonance, consonance, meter, repetition, and rhyme.

Functions
intensifies the emotions,
contributes to the general sense,
helps to get the flow of thoughts and humour of the author,
conveys the mood, emotions and feelings,
sharpens the thought of the author and his characters,
adds specific importance to some ideas and feelings,
helps to create reality in text,
has expressive, symbolic and graphic functions,
can imitate movement, behaviour and even setting. It foregrounds some particular words, thoughts, ideas, feelings, and vice versa obscures others, thus adding a perspective to the text.

THE USE OF RHYTHM AND RHYME IN VERSIFICATION
(СТИХОСЛОЖЕНИЕ)
Rhythm in poetic speech is produced by regular alternation (чередование) of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Why do you cry, Willie ? Why do you cry? Why, Willie, why, Willie, Why, Willie, Why?

A division (отрезок) of the poetic line from stress to stress, which contains one stressed syllable and one or two unstressed syllables, is called a Foot (стопа).

5 types of feet:
trochee (хорей), or a trochaic foot (хореическая сто­па), with two syllables, of which the first is stressed and the second unstressed:
Peter, Peter, pumpkin-eater, ( ' и Г и Г и Г u) Had a wife and couldn't keep her
See also the Russian trochaic foot: Прибежали в избу дети Второпях зовут отца ...

iambus (ямб), or an iambic foot, with two syllables, of which the first is unstressed, the second stressed:
And then my love and I shall pace, (u'lu'Iu'Iu') My jet black hair in pearly braids. (Coleridge)
Мой дядя самых честных правил. Когда не в шутку занемог...

dactyl (дактиль), or a dactylic foot: three syllables, the first stressed, the other two unstressed:
Why do you cry, Willie?
amphibrach (амфибрахий), or an amphibrachic foot: three syllables with the stress on the second:
A diller, a dollar, a ten о 'clock scholar...

anapaest (анапест): three syllables, stress on the third:
Said the flee, 'Let us fly
Said the fly, 'Let us flee
So they flew through a flaw in the flue.

The type of foot and the number of feet in the line determine the Metre of the verse (стихотворный размер).
E.g. iambic trimetre (трехстопный ямб): three iambic feet in a line:
Who sets an apple tree (u ' I u ' 1 u ')
May live to see its end,
Who sets a pear tree
May set it for a friend.

iambic tetrametre (четырехстопный ямб): four iambic feet in a line;
iambic pentametre (пятистопный ямб);
trochaic trimeter (трехстопный хорей);
trochaic tetrametre (четырехстопный хорей);
amphibrachic tetrameter (четырехстопный амфибрахий)

Types of Stanza (типы строф, строфика)
The most common stanza, one consisting of four lines, is called a quatrain (катрен, четверостишие); the more seldom one, consisting of two, is called a couplet (двустишие).
There is also a ballad stanza, typical of poetic folklore, especially that of the 14lh—15th centuries. The ballad stanza usually has four lines, of which the first and third lines contain four feet, while the second and fourth — three or two.

SONNET
A specific type of stanza is used in a sonnet. There we usually find
twelve lines (three quatrains, i.e. three stanzas with four lines),
followed by two final lines (a couplet), which contain a kind of summary of the whole verse.

Understanding Rhyme Scheme
“Sonnet 65” by William Shakespeare*
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea,
But sad mortality o'er-sways their power,
How with this rage shall beauty hold a plea,
Whose action is no stronger than a flower?
O, how shall summer's honey breath hold out
Against the wreckful siege of battering days,
When rocks impregnable are not so stout,
Nor gates of steel so strong, but Time decays?
O fearful meditation! where, alack,
Shall Time's best jewel from Time's chest lie hid?
Or what strong hand can hold his swift foot back?
Or who his spoil of beauty can forbid?
O, none, unless this miracle have might,
That in black ink my love may still shine bright.
*For a translation of this sonnet into modern English click here: http://www.shakespeare-online.com/sonnets/65detail.html

Showing Rhyme Scheme
“Sonnet 65” by William Shakespeare
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea,
But sad mortality o'er-sways their power,
How with this rage shall beauty hold a plea,
Whose action is no stronger than a flower?
O, how shall summer's honey breath hold out
Against the wreckful siege of battering days,
When rocks impregnable are not so stout,
Nor gates of steel so strong, but Time decays?
O fearful meditation! where, alack,
Shall Time's best jewel from Time's chest lie hid?
Or what strong hand can hold his swift foot back?
Or who his spoil of beauty can forbid?
O, none, unless this miracle have might,
That in black ink my love may still shine bright.
Use the alphabet to show rhyme scheme, instead of using colors. Give every rhyme the same letter.
A
B
A
B
C
D
C
D
E
F
E
F
G
G
scheme of this poem is ABABCDCDEFEFGG. It is a regular rhyme scheme because the first and third line of each quatrain scheme of this poem is ABABCDCDEFEFGG. It is a regular rhyme scheme because the first and third line of each quatrain rhyme, as do the second and fourth. The final couplet also rhymes.

What’s the Point of Rhyme Scheme?
“Sonnet 65” by William Shakespeare
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea,
But sad mortality o'er-sways their power,
How with this rage shall beauty hold a plea,
Whose action is no stronger than a flower?
O, how shall summer's honey breath hold out
Against the wreckful siege of battering days,
When rocks impregnable are not so stout,
Nor gates of steel so strong, but Time decays?
O fearful meditation! where, alack,
Shall Time's best jewel from Time's chest lie hid?
Or what strong hand can hold his swift foot back?
Or who his spoil of beauty can forbid?
O, none, unless this miracle have might,
That in black ink my love may still shine bright.
Think of rhyme scheme as a secret code that will help you unlock the poet’s meaning.
A
B
A
B
C
D
C
D
E
F
E
F
G
G
Shakespearean sonnets all follow the same form:
Each has 14 lines.
There are 3 quatrains that express related ideas.
There is the ending couplet that sums up the author’s point or makes a conclusion.
The rhyme scheme is almost always the same.
The first quatrain (4 lines) points out that hard objects and even the sea are changed over time.
The second quatrain gives more examples, such as sweet summer air, rocks, and steel, that decay over time.
In the third quatrain he wonders how beauty can hide from Time.
In the couplet, he hopes that this black ink—this sonnet—will preserve his partner’s beauty.

Graphic EMs
Stylistic function: authentic live communication and speech characterization.

GRAPHON
- intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation.
Graphon proved to be an extremely concise but effective means of supplying information about the speaker's origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition, etc.

Some amalgamated forms, which are the result of strong assimilation, became cliches in contemporary prose dialogue:
"gimme" (give me), "lemme" (let me), "gonna" (going to), "gotta" (got to), "coupla" (couple of), "mighta" (might have), "willya" (will you)

Graphical changes may reflect not only the peculiarities of, pronunciation, but are also used to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus foregrounding the stressed words.
ALL CHANGES OF
the type (italics, bold type, capitalization),
spacing of graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication),
lines.