Seminar 4 Word Meaning

Semantics
Semantics is a subfield of linguistics that is traditionally defined as the study of meaning of (parts of) words, phrases, sentences, and texts.

Semantic change
One and the same word may have several meanings. A word that has more than one meaning is called polysemantic. The total number of meanings for the first thousand of the most frequent English words is almost 25,000; i.e. the average number of meanings for each of these words is 25.
E.g. to run = to go by moving the legs quickly (I began to run.).
Other meanings:
The bus runs between A. and B.
This shop is run by the co-op.
The car runs on petrol.
The bank of the river runs up steeply.

Specialisation of the meaning
Specialisation of the meaning
case = circumstances in which a person or a thing is (general meaning)
Specialised meanings:
case in law terminology = question decided in a court
case in medicine = a patient, an illness
case in grammar (There are six cases in the Slovak language.)

Generalisation of the meaning
Generalisation of the meaning
ready = prepared mentally or physically for some experience or action
(The original meaning was ‘to be prepared for a ride’.)
fly = to move in or through the air or space; to move, pass or act swiftly
(The original meaning was just ‘to move in or through the air by means of wings’.)

Metaphor
Metaphor - transfer of the name of one object to another (and different one) based on association of similarity.
Similarity of behaviour: a fox (= a cunning person), a Don Juan.
Similarity of shape: a head of a cabbage.
Similarity of function: the key to the mystery.
Similarity of position: foot of a mountain.
Transfer from the concrete to abstract: to catch an idea.

Metonymy
Metonymy - the association of contiguity.
Symbol for thing symbolised: the crown (monarchy)
Material for article: glass, iron, copper
A part for the whole (pars pro toto): I want to have a word with you.
The whole for the part (totum pro parte): Kazakhstan won the match.
Common names from proper names: volt, wellingtons
The place of establishment for its policy: the Kremlin
Goods from the geographical names: bikini, tweed

Other types of semantic change
Hyperbole - an exaggerated expression: A thousand thanks!
Litotes - expressing the affirmative by the negation of its contrary: not very clever (= stupid)
Euphemism - the substitution of words of mild or vague meaning for expressions rough, unpleasant or for some other reasons unmentionable: pass away (= die),
queer (= mad)
Euphemism is a base for Euphemism is a base for PC (politically correct) English

Synonymy
The common definition of synonyms as words of the same language having the same meaning is very simple, but unfortunately misleading. Words of the same meaning are useless for communication. Occasionally they can be found in special terminology, e.g. noun = substantive. These are called total synonyms.
Every word has its own history, motivation and context, thus we can define synonyms as words not absolutely identical but just similar in meaning, belonging to the same part of speech and interchangeable in some context.

Hope – expectation – anticipation.
E.g. The word hope is in this group the synonymic dominant. It is the most general, native and neutral word. Expectation and anticipation are (as the words of Romance origin usually are) formal and literary. The difference is not just in the level of stylistics.
Although all three of them mean “having something in mind which is likely to happen”, they differ in collocation.
Hope can be used in idiomatic expressions (to lose hope, not: to lose expectation or to lose anticipation!), means belief and desire. Expectation is collocated with both – good, and evil; anticipation - something good, pleasurable.

Synonyms 2
Synonyms may differ:
in emotional colouring: alone – lonely (sad, longing for company)
in valency: win (a victory, a war) – gain (a victory, not a war!)
in style: begin (neutral) – commence (literary)
There are words that are similar in meaning only under some specific conditions – contextual synonyms.
E.g. buy and get in a sentence: “I’ll go to the shop and get/buy some bread.”

Distinction between synonyms
The distinctions between words similar in meaning are often very fine, even for a native speaker. Sometimes to show the difference it is good to point out antonyms: high – low; tall – short.
English is quite rich in synonyms. Words of native origin are usually simple and less formal than their synonyms borrowed from other languages.
Other sources of synonymy are local dialects, regional varieties of English (American, Scottish, etc.), formation of new words, semantic change. Rich sources of synonymy are phrasal verbs.

Antonyms
Antonyms are two (rarely more) words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech with contradictory meaning (alive – dead, love –hate, useful - useless).
Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ in style, emotional colouring or distribution.
The same word may have different antonyms when used with different words: single ticket – return ticket, she is single – she is married.

Root antonyms
1. Root (absolute) antonyms.
a. Antonyms proper. Proper (absolute) antonyms may be characterised as contrary. They are polar members of a gradual opposition which may have intermediary elements.
E.g. beautiful – pretty – good-looking – plain – ugly.
b. Complementary antonyms. Complementarity is a binary opposition; it may have only two members. The denial of one member means the assertion of the other. E.g. not male means female, not true means false.
c. Relational antonyms (converses). Converses denote one and the same subject as viewed from different points of view (e.g. subject and object, family and social relations, space and time relations, etc.).
E.g. borrow – lend, husband – wife, before – after.

Derivational antonyms
2. Derivational antonyms.
E.g. happy – unhappy, known – unknown.
The affixes in derivational antonyms deny the quality stated in the stem. There are typical affixes that form these derivational antonyms (see above Derivation). The regular type of derivational antonyms contains negative prefixes: dis-, il- /im-/in-/ir and un. Derivational antonyms may be characterised as contradictory. A pair of derivational antonyms forms a binary opposition (see above complementary root antonyms). E.g. logical – illogical, appear – disappear.

Contronyms
Contronyms are the words which are their own antonyms.
E.g.: dust - to remove fine articles (dust the cabinets) or to add fine articles (dust the bread with flour);
fast - rapid or unmoving (fast asleep, fast stuck);
handicap - advantage (in golf) - disadvantage.

Homonymny
Two or more words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning, distribution and
origin are called homonyms.
It is necessary to differentiate between polysemy (e.g. head of a cabbage, head of department) and homonymy (e.g. liver = 1 living person, 2 the organ that produces bile)