DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY FROM the 12

List of Principal Questions
1. General characteristics
2. Native element in Modern English
2.1. Common Indo-European stratum
2.2. Common Germanic stratum
3. Means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English
3.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary
3.2. External means of enriching vocabulary
4. New English
4.1. General Characteristics
4.2. Means of enriching vocabulary in New English
4.2.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary
4.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary
5. Word-hybrids
6. Etymological doublets

1. General characteristics
The English vocabulary of today reflects as no other aspect of the language the many changes in the history of the people and various contacts which the English speakers had with many nations and countries.
Changes in the vocabulary: losses of words or their meanings, replacements and additions

Lexical changes
Losses were connected with events in external history: with the changing conditions of life and the obsolescence of many medieval concepts and customs:
OE witenaӡemōt ‘assembly of the elders’ ceased to exist under the Norman rule)

Lexical changes
80 - 85% of the OE words went out of use in the succeeding periods.
Most of these words were not simply lost; they were replaced by other words of the same or similar meanings.
Replacement < co-existence and rivalry of synonyms and the ultimate selection of one of the rivals:
OE clipian > ME callen, NE call;
OE niman > ME taken, NE take;
OE pronouns hie and hēo > they and she;
OE weorðan > become;
NE river < OE ea;
NE table < OE bord

Lexical changes
Additions embrace a large number of vocabulary changes - the process of obsolescence and decay.
Additions: pure innovations = entirely new words which did not take the place of any other items but were created to name new things, new ideas and new qualities
ME citee ‘town with a cathedral’, duke, duchesse, prynce ‑ new ranks and titles; NE bourgeois, potato, nylon.

Native Words and Borrowings
large number of foreign words in English ≠ the vocabulary has lost its Germanic nature.
functional role of the native element:
the notions expressed by native words, their regularity and frequency of occurrence > Germanic element still holds a fundamental place, and the English vocabulary should be called Germanic.

2. Native element in Modern English
English native words form two ethymological strata:
the Common Indo-European stratum
and the Common Germanic stratum.

2.1. Common Indo-European stratum
the oldest in the vocabulary
existed thousands of years B.C., at the time when it was yet impossible to speak about separate Indo-European languages
Common Indo-European vocabulary has been inherited by many modem Indo-European languages, not only Germanic
This is often a possible proof of these words belonging to the Common Indo-European stratum:
English Latin Russian
Mother mater мать
Brother frater брат
Night nox(noctem) ночь
Be fieri быть
stand stare стоять
Two duo два
Three tres три
ten decern десять

2.2. Common Germanic stratum
words inherited from Common Germanic (exist before it began splitting into various subgroups around the 1st century B.C. – 1st century A.D).
These words can be found in various Germanic languages, but not in Indo-European languages other than Germanic.
English German Swedish
Man mann man
Earth erde jord
Harm harm harm
Green griin gron
Grey grau gra

3. Means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English
3.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary
Word formation fell into two types: word derivation and word composition
Suffixation has always been the most productive way of deriving new words
most of the OE productive suffixes have survived
many new suffixes have been added from internal and external sources

Suffixation: Native Suffixes
OE -ere > -er
from various stems (native + foreign > hybrids)
ME partener, fermer, villager
Londoner, Southerne;
knocker, roller;
boiler 'one who boils' in the 16th с. and a 'vessel for boiling' in the 19th с.;
NE: follower, flyer, hearer, listener, teacher, speaker (from native stems);
admirer, entertainer, producer (from foreign stems).
Its new meaning:rectifier, revolver, type-writer.
The suffix -er had several rivals among synonymous borrowed affixes -or, -ist, -ite, but it surpassed them all in productivity

Suffixation: Native Suffixes
productive suffixes -ness and -ing
The suffix -ness was equally productive in all historical periods:
alertness, consciousness, politeness (borrowed stems).
highly productive suffix of abstract nouns - ME –ing:
ME beginning, feeling, spelling, preeching, NE shopping

Suffixation: Native Suffixes
-dom, -ship and -hood in all historical periods:
ME sheriffdom, dukedom, NE boydom, churchdom; ME brotherhood, manhood, NE bookhood, inval-idhood; ME hardship, courtship, NE editorship, relationship
A new suffix -man < a root-morpheme in ME.
In NE -man > highly productive
some words with -man have the connecting element -s ‑ kinsman, statesman

Suffixation: Native Suffixes
OE -isc, ME -ish
OE Enӡlisc, cildisc (NE childish),
ME sleepish, foolish; NE bookish, modish, feverish (the last two examples illustrate its use with foreign stems),
ME and NE reddish, greenish
OE -iӡ, ME -y:
ME fiery, sleepy, faulty, NE hairy, risky, faulty and risky have Romance stems.
OE –lic > ME and NE -ly < from a root-morpheme:
ME fatherly, manly, masterly, beestly,
Early NE neighbourly, lonely, cowardly.

Suffixation: Native Suffixes
ME -less < OE -leas ‘devoid of’ > the most productive suffixes:
ME helpless, sleepless, NE heartless, fearless (native stems); ME colourless, joyless, NE motionless, powerless (borrowed stems).
OE and ME -ful < morphological simplification - OE adjective full > suffix as early as ME:
ME harmful, wilful, NE hopeful, wishful (with native stems); beautiful, joyful, lawful, respectful (with borrowed stems ‑ French, Scandinavian and Latin).
Verb suffixes of native origin:never productive in English.
In ME one native suffix -en to derive verbs from monosyllabic adjectives, mainly native:
gladden, lighten, weaken;
sometimes it is applied to noun-stems (derived from adjectives in Early OE with the help of -þ): strong – strength ‑ strengthen.

Suffixation: Borrowed Suffixes
Borrowed Suffixes > an important place in English word derivation.
Borrowed suffixes entered the English language with the two biggest waves of loan-words: French loans in ME and classical loans in Early NE

French borrowed suffixes
–able: acceptable, admirable, endurable, presentable (with borrowed stems), breakable, shakable (with native English stems ‑ break, shake).
-ess: ME authoress, princess, captainess ‑ with borrowed stems, goddess, huntress ‑ with native stems; NE governess, butleress, priestess.
-ее: ME grantee, NE employee, addressee (also with native stems: trustee)
-or: (≈ native suffix –er): collector, educator + a secondary meaning of 'instrument': refrigerator, compressor

French borrowed suffixes
Early NE -ist, -ite :
columnist, capitalist, structuralist (also Darwinist from the name of Darwin); Muscovite, Ibsenite
-ance or -ence, -ty, -age, -ry, -ment + Franco-Latin -tion / -sion + Latin or Greek -ism:
avoid-ance, and hindr-ance (a hybrid with a native stem), peerage, leekage and stowage (with the native stem stow). NE formations with borrowed suffixes are: forbearance, shortage, goosery, sophistry (Gr), readability, fulfilment, starvation, Darwinism.

French borrowed suffixes
–able / -ible (≠ adjective able 'able to act or be acted upon. Cf. capable, drinkable, eatable.
-ous 'abounding in‘: dubious, ferocious, tremendous, lustrous, thunderous, righteous
-al and -ic (+ -ive): economical, atomic, defective

French borrowed suffixes
-ise and –fy (highly productive) : memorise, militarise, normalise, but womanise (native stem); -fy ‑ classify, intensify.
Borrowed affiexes entered the system of English word-building; some of them are as productive as native affixes
Semantically and stylistically most borrowed affixes belong to the language of science, literature, politics, philosophy
creation of new terms with these affixes is based on borrowed roots.
high frequency of the affixes = sufficient proof of their complete assimilation and productivity

Prefixation. Native Prefixes
Many OE verb prefixes dropped out of use, e.g. a-, to-, on-, of-, ӡе-, or-.
In some words the prefix fused with the root and the structure of the word was simplified, e.g.: (on-, be-) begin, (to-)break.

Prefixation. Native Prefixes
The negative prefixes mis- and un- > a great number of new words: NE misjudge, mispronounce, mislead, unscale, unreal, unfamiliar, etc.
ME ut- > out: outlook, outspoken; ME outcast, NE outbalance;
ME ofer > over-: ME overgrowe(n), NE overload, overlook; ME overcaste(n), overtaken, NE overdress, overestimate, overpay;
ME under > under-: ME underwrite(n), NE underfeed, undermine

Borrowed Prefixes
com-, sub- and re- : re-act, re-adjust, re-fill, re-construct, re-open, re-attack, re-awake
de- and dis- : disconnect, disroot (borrowed stems), disbelieve, dislike, disown.
en- / in- : enablen, enclosen, NE encamp, endanger, enlist, enrich (with borrowed stems).
hybrids with native stems: NE embody, entwine, entrust

Borrowed Prefixes
in- (and its variants in- / im- / il- / ir-) = negative meaning (+ native mis-, un-, borrowed non- ) > numerous synonyms: unpleasant, displeasant; unpossible, impossible; disable, unable, non-able; unfirm, infirm, NE disbelief ‑ misbelief, inhuman ‑ non-human)
non- (Franco-Latin origin) > highly productive: NE non-attendance, non-Germanic, non-aggression, non-existent,

Borrowed Prefixes
affixes of the international layer, mostly used with stems of Latin and Greek origin:
anti- (Gr) ‑ anti-aircraft, anti‑climax;
со- (L) ‑ co-exist, co-operate, co-ordinate;
ex- (L) ‑ ex-champion, ex-president;
extra- (L) ‑ extra-mural, extra-ordinary;
post- (L) ‑ post-position, post-war;
pre- (L) ‑ pre-classical, pre-written (In this list only writ ‑ is a native English root);
semi- (L) ‑ semi-circle, semi-official.

3.2. External means of enriching vocabulary
The principal means of enriching vocabulary in ME are not internal, but external – borrowings.
Two languages in succession enriched the vocabulary of English –
the Scandinavian language
and the French language
Nature of the borrowings and their amount < contacts between the English and these languages

Scandinavian borrowings
Words of Scandinavian > the 8th - the 10th centuries < Scandinavian invasions and settlement on the British Isles
the amount of words borrowed ≈ about 500
some linguists – more: similarity of the languages and scarcity of written records + word could be inherited from the same Common Germanic source
constant contacts and intermixture of the English and the Scandinavians > many changes in different spheres of the English language: wordstock, grammar and phonetics.
The relative ease < circumstances of the Anglo-Scandinavian contacts

Scandinavian borrowings
Nouns: law, fellow, sky, skirt, skill, skin, egg, anger, awe, bloom, knife, root, .bull, cake, husband, leg, wing, guest, loan, race, bag, band, brink, bulk, crook, dirt, gap, gate, raft, score, scrap, seat, skim, skull, window, wing
Adjectives: big, weak, wrong, ugly, twin, awkward, flat, happy, ill, loose, low, odd, rotten, scares, sly, tight

Scandinavian borrowings
Verbs: call, cast, take, happen, scare, hail, want, bask, gape, give, get, forgive, forget, kindle, bait, crawl, cut, die, gasp, hit, lift, raise, rid, scatter, snub, thrive, thrust
Pronouns: they, them, their, then.
Other form-words borrowed from Scandinavian are: both, though, fro (= native from > to and fro).

The conditions and the consequences of borrowings
1. a borrowed word had no synonym (addition): law, fellow.
2. The E. synonym was ousted by the borrowing (replacement): Sc. taken (to take) and callen (to call) <=> E. synonyms niman and clypian

The conditions and the consequences of borrowings
3. Both the words (E. and Sc. Preserved > different in meaning:
Native Scandinavian borrowing
heaven sky
starve die

The conditions and the consequences of borrowings
Phonetic / spelling features of Sc. words:
— words with sk / sc in the spelling: sky, skin, skill, scare, score, scald, busk, bask (but not some Old French borrowings as task, scare, scan, scape)
— words with the sound [g] or [k] before front vowels [i], [e] [ei], in the spelling i, e, ue, ai, a (open syllable) or at the end of the word: give, get, forgive, forget, again, gate, game, keg, kid, kilt, egg, drag, dregs, flag, hug, leg, log, rig
personal names ending in -son: Jefferson, Johnson or
place names ending in -ly, -thorp, -toft (originally meaning "village", "hamlet"): Whitly, Althorp, Lowestoft.
Mainly in the north-east of England < the Scandinavian influence was stronger

The conditions and the consequences of borrowings
4. a borrowed word and an English word = etymological doublets (words originating from the same source in Common Germanic)
Native Scandinavian borrowing
shirt skirt
shatter scatter
raise rear

The conditions and the consequences of borrowings
5. an English word = Scandinavian in meaning but slightly different phonetically
Sc. phonetic form > in E.: ModE to give, to get < Sc. gefa, geta, E. ӡiefan and ӡietan →
Similar ModE: gift, forget, guild, gate, again
6. A shift of meaning: dream originally "joy, pleasure"; under the Sc. influence > modern meaning

French borrowings
The French element in E- large and important
ME borrowings < Norman French ‑ the dialect of William the Conqueror and his followers.
entered the language in the period beginning with the time of Edward the Confessor and continued up to the loss of Normandy in 1204.
Norman conquest > deep traces in English < words connected with such spheres of social and political activity: French-speaking Normans had occupied for a long time all places of importance.
The amount of these ME borrowings ≈ 3,500.

French borrowings
– government and legislature: assembly, authority, chancellor, council, country, crown, court, govern, government, nation, office, parliament, people, power, realm, sovereign, noble, baron, prince, duke, duchess, feudal, manorcount, countess, justice, judge, crime, damage, false, guilt, heir, injury, interest, jury, marry, marriage, money, penalty, poor, poverty, properly, prove, prison, rent, robber, session, traitor, condemn, sentence, etc. (But: lord, lady, king, queen, earl, knight are native);

French borrowings
– military life: army, banner, battle, captain, company, defeat, escape, force, lieutenant, navy, sergeant, siege, soldier, troops, vessel, peace, victory, general, colonel, major, etc.
– religion: abbey,altar, archangel, Bible, baptism, cell, chapel, charity, clergy, divine, grace, honour, glory, lesson, miracle, paradise, parish, pray, preach, procession, religion, rule, sacrifice, saint, save, sermon, tempt, virgin, virtue;

French borrowings
‑ architecture, house and furniture: arch, castle, tower, cellar, chimney, column, couch, curtain, cushion, lamp, mansion, palace, pillar, porch, table, wardrobe, chair (but stool is English);
‑ art: art, beauty, colour, design, figure, image, ornament, paint;
– city crafts: painter, tailor, carpenter, butcher, draper, grocer (but country occupations remained English: shepherd, miller, shoemaker, smith)

French borrowings
– pleasure and entertainment: joy, delight, ease, comfort, sport, music, art, feast, pleasure, leisure;
‑ meals and dishes: supper, dinner, sauce, boil, fry, roast, toast, soup, sausage, jelly, pork, beef, mutton, veal, bacon, brawn, venison (but the corresponding names of domestic animals remained English. It is often repeated since Walter Scott made it popular in ‘Ivenhoe’, that while the names of several animals taken care of by the lower classes are English pig, ox, cow, calf, sheep, swine, bear, deer, they appear on the table with French names)

French borrowings
‑ fashion, garment: apparel, boot, coat, collar, costume, dress, fur, garment, gown, jewel, robe;
– words of everyday life: air, place, river, large, age, boil, branch, brush, catch, chain, chair, table, choice, cry, cost;
‑ forms of address: sir, madam, mister, mistress, master, servant;
– relationship: aunt, uncle, nephew, cousin

French borrowings
‑ miscellaneous: advice, air, allow, anxious, boil, carry, change, clos, cover, deceive, doble, eager, enjoy, ente, envy, excuse, face, firm, flower, honest, hour, joy, large, letter, manner, move, necessary, nice, noise, obey, occupy, pale, pass, please, previous, push, river, remember, satisfy, search, scissors, single, sudden, sure, travel, treasure, very, use

The place of the French borrowings
1. denote notions unknown to the English up to the time: government, parliament, general, colonel
2. The English synonym is ousted by the French borrowing:
English French
micel large
here army
ea river

The place of the French borrowings
3. Both the words are preserved, but they are stylistically different:
English French
to begin to commence
to work to labour
to leave to abandon
freedom liberty
brotherhood fraternity
life existence
look regard
ship vessel
hearty welcome cordial reception
French borrowing = more literary or even bookish
English word = common; (but: foe (native, English) ‑ enemy (French borrowing)

The place of the French borrowings
4. many words were borrowed with the same word-building affix > became clear to the English-speaking people > entered the system of word-building means > word-hybrids:
-ment (government, parliament, agreement) > English-French hybrids: fulfilment, amazement.
-ance/-ence (innocence, ignorance, repentance) > word-hybrids:hindrance
French borrowings admirable, tolerable, reasonable - readable, eatable, unbearable.

The place of the French borrowings
5. borrowings from French → ethymological doublets
– from the Common Indo-European:
native borrowed
fatherly paternal
– from the Common Germanic:
Native borrowed
yard garden
ward guard
choose choice
– from Latin:
Earlier Later
(Old English) (Middle English)
borrowing borrowing
Mint money
inch ounce

The place of the French borrowings
6. great number of French borrowings > families of words: similar in meaning - different in origin:
native borrowed
mouth oral
sun solar
see vision

The place of the French borrowings
7. There are calques on the French phrase:
It's no doubt – Se n'est pas doute
Without doubt – Sans doute
Out of doubt – Hors de doute.

4. New English
4.1. General Characteristics
The language in NE is growing very rapidly, the amount of new words exceeds the number of obsolete ones manifold.
Both internal means and external means are used for the purpose of enriching the vocabulary

4.2. Means of enriching vocabulary in New English
4.2.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary
a new, specifically English way of word derivation ‑ conversion (also known as “functional change
The word > another part of speech with an identical initial form:
book (a noun): book – books
book (a verb): book – books – booked – booking
The book is on the table. – He booked a room.
man (n) – man (v), stone (n) – stone (v) – stone (adj) (as in “a stone bench”), etc.

Conversion
Conversion < grammatical and lexical changes during the ME period.
The loss of endings and suffixes > a large number of E. verbs and nouns identical in form:
OE lufu n > Late ME love n – love(n) v > NE love n, v
Late ME chaunge n (from Fr.) > NE change n, v.
nouns < verbs:
Early NE drive n < drive v, paint n < paint v.
break < break; NE look < look

Conversion
A borrowed noun > frequently into a verb: blitz, camouflage, sabotage.
Most parts of the body > verbs:
We can head a ball, a group of people or a list; we elbow or shoulder our way through a crowd; we can eye a person with dislike or suspicion; children sometimes cheek their elders if they cannot stomach the way in which they are treated. One can nose around, finger some knick-knacks, thumb a book, face a danger, etc.

Word-Derivation
Sound interchanges - never a productive means in E.: instances of sound interchanges few, in NE their role grew. Cf. the resulting vowel interchanges in NE clean ‑ cleanse, wild ‑ wilderness, wise – wisdom
result of weakening and loss of many suffixes and grammatical endings > sound interchanges the only means of distinction : song ‑ sing, tale – tell, full – fill, sit – set.

Word-Derivation
The role of stress in word-building < weakening and loss of final syllables → no other differences:
Early NE 'contrast n and con'trast v
NE 'export ‑ ex'port, 'conduct ‑ con'duct, 'increase ‑ in'crease

4.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary
Very many new words in NE < borrowing - sociolinguistic factors into consideration
Chronologically NE borrowings:
Early New English period – XV–XVII centuries
late New English – XVIII–XX centuries

Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII centuries)
XV c. – the epoch of Renaissance > many words borrowed from the Italian tongue: aria, bass, concerto, duet, finale, solo, sonata, piano, soprano, tenor, cameo, archipelago, dilettante, fresco, violin, balcony, corridor, design, gallery, granite, parquet, pedestal, studio, gondola, grotto, volcano

Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII c.)
in the XVI century – Spanish and Portuguese words:
armada, barricade, cannibal, cargo,
embargo, escapade; banana, canoe,
chocolate, cocao, collibri, maize, negro,
potato, ranch, tobacco, tomato, tornado,
mosquito, renegade, matador;

Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII c.)
Dutch loan-words:
pack, scour, spool, stripe, hops, tub, scum,
bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, freight,
keel, skipper, easel, landscape, sketch

Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII c.)
Latin (the language of culture of the time) :
– verbs, with the characteristic endings -ate, -ute: aggravate, abbreviate, exaggerate, frustrate, separate, irritate, contribute, constitute, persecute, prosecute, execute
–adjectives ending in -ant, -ent, -ior, -al: arrogant, reluctant, evident, obedient, superior, inferior, senior, junior, dental, cordial, filial.

Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII c.)
French and Latin loan-words in E< one and the same root, i.e. they are etymological doublets:
sever – separate, royal – regal, sure –
secure, defeat – defect, pursue – prosecute,
fragile – frail, pauper – poor, hospital –
hotel, history – story, example – sample

Etymological doublets

Etymological doublets

Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII c.)
XVII c. - relations with the peoples of America:
canoe, maize, potato, tomato, tobacco,
mahogany, cannibal, hammock,
squaw, moccasin, wigwam

Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII c.)
French borrowings:
aggressor, apartment, brunette, ball, ballet,
billet, caprice, coquette, intrigue, fatigue,
naïve, campaign, caprice, caress, console,
coquette, cravat, billet-doux, carte blanche
Later: garage, magazine, policy, machine.

French Borrowings Origin
Phonetics of French borrowings always helps to prove their origin
These phonetic features: stress and special sound/letter features:
Words which do not have stress on the first syllable unless the first syllable is a prefix are almost always French borrowings of the New English period.
Words containing the sounds [ʃ] spelled not sh, [ʤ] ‑ not dg, [ʧ] ‑ not ch and practically all words with the sound [ӡ] = French origin:
aviation, social, Asia, soldier, jury, literature, pleasure,
treasure

Late New English borrowings (XVIII‑XX centuries)
German:
cobalt, nickel, zinc, dynamics, kindergarten,
halt, stroll, poodle, waltz, wagon, boy, girl,
blitz, bunker, fürer,Gestapo, nazi
and some translation loans –
swan-song, standpoint, environment,
superman, world outlook, class
struggle, masterpiece

Late New English borrowings (XVIII‑XX c.)
French:
attaché, communiqué, dossier, ball, beau,
cortege, cafe, coquette, hotel, picnic,
restaurant, ballet, ensemble, essay, genre,
brigade, corps, maneuver, marine, magazine,
machine, garage, police, engine, nacelle,
aileron, blouse, chemise, corsage, cravat,
champagne, menu, soup, detail, entrance,
moustache, progress, ticket

Late New English borrowings (XVIII‑XX c.)
Hindi (Indian): bungalow, jungle, indigo, shampoo, rajah, coshemere
Chinese: coolie, tea
Arabic: caravan, divan, alcohol, algebra, coffee, bazaar, orange, cotton, candy, chess, emir, moslem, Koran
Australian: kangaroo, boomerang, lubra
Czech robot; Polish mazurka, Malayan bamboo, Persian shawl, Japanese rickshaw, Australian boomerang, Polynesian taboo, Congolese zebra

Late New English borrowings (XVIII‑XX c.)
‑ Russian:
Before the October Revolution - Russian realia of the time:
borzoi, samovar, tsar, verst, taiga, astrakhan, beluga, boyar,
copeck, intelligentsia, muzhik, rouble,trika, verst, vodka
After the Revolution - political role of this country in the world:
Soviet, bolshevik, kolkhoz, Komsomol.
Cultural and technical achievements:
sputnik, lunnik, lunokhod, synchrophasotron, cosmonaut
recently political terms:
glasnost, perestroika
translation loans:
collective farm, Five-Year-Plan, wall newspaper, self-criticism.
Russian suffix –nik: narodnik, kolkhoznik, udarnik, sputnik, lunnik, (peacenik ‘active fighter for peace’)

Late New English borrowings (XVIII‑XX c.)
NE: formed on the basis of Greek and Latin vocabulary: mainly scientific or technical terms:
telephone, telegraph, teletype, telefax,
microphone, sociology, politology,
electricity
to identify Latin loan-words of NE:
-ate: dominate, locate, separate
-ute: execute, prosecute
–ct: correct, inspect

Late New English borrowings (XVIII‑XX c.)
-ent, -ant: apparent, evident, important, reluctant; incident, accident
Greek loan-words: ph for [f], ps for [s], ch for [k]: photography, psychology, scheme, archaic

5. Word-hybrids
a large number of words: the elements of which are of different origin > generally termed word-hybrids

Word-hybrids

Word-hybrids

Word-hybrids

Word-hybrids

6. Etymological doublets
Etymological doublets: from the same word or root, but which entered English at different times or through different channels.
The ultimate source of the doublets:

6. Etymological doublets

6. Etymological doublets

6. Etymological doublets

6. Etymological doublets

6. Etymological doublets

Conclusion
The examples of various etymological strata in the Modern English vocabulary => a sufficient testimony of a long and complicated history of the English nation and the English language.
They prove that language changes can be understood only in relation to the life of the people speaking the language