Этимологические характеристики словарного состава

Etymology of the English Word-stock
Etymology (Gr. etymon “truth” + Gr. logos “learning”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin and history of words tracing them to their earliest determinable source.

The Origins of English Words

Definitions
A native word is a word which belongs to the original English word stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period.
A borrowed word (a borrowing, or a loan word) is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.

Words of Native Origin
Words of the Indo-European origin (IE)
Words of common Germanic origin
English words proper

Words of the Indo-European origin
Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter
Parts of the human body: foot, nose, lip, heart, tooth
Animals and plants: cow, swine, goose, tree, birch, corn
The most important objects and phenomena of nature: sun, moon, star, wind, water, wood, hill, stone
Adjectives: hard, quick, slow, red, white, new
Numerals from 1 to 100: one, two, twenty, eighty
Pronouns – personal, except they (Sc.): I, you, he; demonstrative : that; interrogative: who
Some of the most frequent verbs: bear, do, be, sit, stand

Words of common Germanic origin
Nouns denoting parts of the human body: head, arm, finger
Periods of time: summer, winter, time, week
Natural phenomena: storm, rain, flood, ice, ground, sea, earth
Artefacts and materials: bridge, house, shop, room, coal, iron, lead, cloth
Animals, plants and birds: sheep, horse, fox, crow, oak, grass
Adjectives denoting colours, size and other properties: broad, dead, deaf, deep, grey, blue
Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, make, give

Historical causes of borrowing
The Roman invasion (1st c. B.C.),
The introduction of Christianity (7th c. A.D.),
The Danish conquests (11th – 13th c. A.D.),
The Norman conquest (1066 A.D.),
The Renaissance period (14th – 16th c. A.D.),
Direct linguistic contacts and political, economical and cultural relationship with other nations.

The Etymology of Borrowed Words
Celtic: 5th – 6th A. D.
Latin:
1st layer: 1st c. B. C.
2nd layer: 7th c. A. D. (the introduction of Christianity)
3rd layer: 14th – 16th c. (the Renaissance period)
Scandinavian: 8th – 11th c. A. D.
French:
Norman borrowings: 11th – 13th A. D.
Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period
Greek: the Renaissance period
Italian: the Renaissance period and later
Spanish: the Renaissance period and later
Russian: the Renaissance period and later
German, Indian and other languages

Celtic borrowings
Place names: Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux (Celtic “river”, “water”); London (Llyn “river”+ dun “a fortified hill”) - “a fortress on the hill over the river”
cradle, cross, iron, flannel, tweed, lake (C. loch)

The earliest Latin borrowings (1st c. A.D.)
words denoting things connected with war, trade, building and domestic life: pound, inch, cup, kitchen, pepper, butter, cheese, milk, wine, cherry

Latin words borrowed into English through the Christianization of England (7th c. A.D.)
persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals: priest, bishop, monk, nun, candle, temple, angel
words connected with learning: grammar, school, scholar, decline, master, magister

Latin borrowings of the Renaissance period (14th – 16th c. A.D.)
abstract words: major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create.

Scandinavian borrowings (8th - 11th c. A.D.)
Verbs: call, take, cast, die, want
Nouns: law, egg, husband (Sc. hūs + bōndi “inhabitant of the house”), window (Sc. vindauga “the eye of the wind”)
Adjectives: ill, loose, low, weak
Pronouns and pronominal forms: they, their, them, same, both, though.

Scandinavian borrowings
(place names)
Derby, Tremsby (-by: Sc. “village, town”);
Zinthorp, Altharp (-thorp: Sc. “village”);
Eastoft, Nortoft (-toft: Sc. “a plot of land covered with grass”);
Troutbeck (-beck: Sc. “brook”);
Inverness (-ness: Sc. “cape”);
Applethwait, Crossthwait (-thwait: Sc. “forest glade”)

Norman borrowings (11th – 13th c. A.D.)
Government and administration: state, country, government, parliament, prince, baron
Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison, jury
Religious terms: saint, sermon (проповедь), prayer, parish (приход), chapel
Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy
Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil
Artistic and literary terms: image, character, figure, volume, design
Terms of everyday life: chair, table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, breakfast

Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period and later
regime, routine, police, machine, ballet, matinée, scene, technique, bourgeois, etc.

The Renaissance period borrowings (14th – 16th c. A.D.)
Italian: piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel
Spanish: potato, tomato, cargo, banana, cocoa
Greek: direct (e.g. atom, cycle, ethics, esthete), or through Latin (datum, status, phenomenon, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music)

Other borrowings
Japanese: karate, judo, hara-kiri, kimono, tycoon
Arabic: algebra, algorithm, fakir, giraffe, sultan
Turkish: yogurt, kiosk, tulip
Persian: caravan, shawl, bazaar, sherbet
Eskimo: kayak, igloo, anorak
Amerindian languages: toboggan, wigwam, opossum
Russian: bistro, tsar, balalaika, tundra, sputnik

Classification of borrowings according to the aspect which is borrowed
Borrowings proper
Translation borrowings (translation loans)
Semantic borrowings

Classification of borrowings according to the aspect which is borrowed
Translation borrowings (translation loans) are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme translation.
E. g. masterpiece < Germ. Meisterstück; Wonder child < Germ. Wunderkind; wall newspaper < Rus. стенная газета; collective farm < Rus. колхоз.

Classification of borrowings according to the aspect which is borrowed
Semantic borrowing is understood as the development in an English word of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another language.
E. g. Eng. pioneer ‘explorer’, ‘one who is among the first in new fields of activity’:: Rus. пионер ‘a member of the Young Pioneers’ Organization’.
reaction, deviation, bureau

International words
“Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source” (I. A. Arnold)