English as a GLOCAL language

World Englishes
Who owns English? Not Britain anymore.
English is beyond Britain and Europe
Englishness, Anglocentrism, Britocentrism, Britishness,
VS
Europeanness of English

World Englishes
Modern concept of International English is a result of evolution.
1st British colony in North America in 1607 became the first step towards globalization
First Webster Dictionary in the 19th century brought spelling division between AmE and BrE

World English
Initially British Lingaphone Company offered courses of language :
English VS American English
The term “British English” was non-existent
English was viewed as real stuff and smth fundamental

Randolph Quirk 1962
The Use of English
English is no longer the possession of the British, or even the British and the Americans, but . . . exists in an increasingly large number of different varieties . . . But the most important development of all is seen in the emergence of varieties that are identified with and are specific to particular countries from among the former British colonies. In West Africa, in the West Indies, and in Pakistan and India . . . it is no longer accepted by the majority that the English of England, with RP as its accent, are the only possible models of English to be set before the young. (pp. 293)

M.A.K. Halliday
I myself came from the Inner Circle of Englishes, the OVEs (Old Variety of Englishes) as they are called in South-East Asia; so I would like to start by reminding you that within this circle there are and always have been many different Englishes around. I’m not talking about the relatively recent worldwide varieties – British, North American, South African, Oceanic; but about the old dialects within Britain itself, Northumbrian, Mercian, Wessex, and Kentish at one period in the language’s history.

World Englishes
Among the varieties of English,
there is a division into
the “Old Englishes” (usually British, American,Australian, Canadian and a few others) and
the “New Englishes” that have emerged in such nations as India, Nigeria,Singapore, and the Philippines.

New Englishes
It has become customary to use the plural form ‘Englishes’ to stress the diversity to be found in the language today, and to stress that English no longer has one single base of authority, prestige and normativity.

Varieties of English
A neutral term used to refer to any kind of language – a dialect, accent, sociolect, style or register
Such a variety can be very general, such as “American English,” or very specific, such as “the lower working-class dialect of the Lower East Side of New York City.”

World Englishes
Dialect
Lingualect
Variant
Variation of English

Varieties of English
The term “variety” is an academic term used for any kind of language production, whether we are viewing it as being determined by region, by gender, by social class, by age or by our own inimitable individual characteristics.

Varieties of English
The concepts of language variety and variation lie at the heart of the world Englishes enterprise:
“varieties of English,”
“localized varieties of English,”
“non-native varieties of English,”
“second-language varieties of English,” and
“new varieties of English.”
The issue of linguistic variety is also central to both traditional dialectology and contemporary linguistics, where it is often subsumed into the study of language variation and change.

Variety of English Englishes
Global Englishes
International Englishes
New Englishes
World Englishes

World Englishes
ENL – English as a native language (anglophone speakers)- L1
ESL - English a the second language L2
EFL - English a a foreign language L3
tripartite model
NB! 110 territories worldwide, ex-USSR is not mentioned

World Englishes
EIL - English as International language
EILTS- English as International language Testing System – standard for Commonwealth countries

World Englishes
English as a Second Language (ESL)
English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
Immigrant Englishes: depending on a host of social and economic factors (English in Mexico, Chicano English of the USA)

NEW ENGLISHES AND CREOLISTICS
It is in the above context that DeCamp (1971) coined the term post-creole continuum.
Besides, basilectal and mesolectal features continue to co-exist in these communities, suggesting that Creole has not died yet.

Creoloids
The term ‘creoloid’ dates to Platt’s (1975) discussion of Singapore English, which arose under colonialism in a highly multilingual context that included several Chinese languages, Malay and Tamil.
Platt noted several grammatical features of colloquial Singapore English that were reminiscent of creolisation:
(a) variable lack of copula
(b) more than one copula
(c) variable marking of 3rd person sg. for verbs
(d) variable marking of past tense

Contact Linguistics and
World Englishes
The field of creolistics (or pidgin and creole linguistics) has shown how detailed archival research can illuminate earlier forms of contact languages and offer a firmer foundation against which to test characterizations of creoles and theories of creolization.

Tom McArthur’s Circle of World English (1987)

Tom McArthur’s Circle of World English (1987)

Manfred GЁorlach’s Circle model of English (GЁorlach 1990)

Braj Kachru’s Circles model of World Englishes

The Three Circles of B.Kachru 1985
The “Three Circles of English” :
the “Inner,” - the societies where English is the “primary language,” i.e., the USA, the UK,Canada, Australia, and New Zealand
“Outer,” postcolonial Anglophonic contexts, a numerically large and diverse speech community, including such African and Asian societies as Nigeria, Zambia, India, and Singapore.
“Expanding” Circles.

The Three Circles of B.Kachru 1985
The Expanding Circle is defined as comprising those areas where English is an “international language” and traditionally regarded as societies learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) - China, Greece, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Korea, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, and the USSR

The Three Circles of B.Kachru 1985
The Circles model was intended to represent
(1) the types of spread of English worldwide,
(2) the patterns of acquisition, and
(3) the functional domains in which English is used internationally.

World Englishes
Division between
Standardisation & diversification
Intellibility & practicality

Multiple Mixing and World Englishes
mixing of world Englishes,
mixing of world English accents,
mixing of English with other languages,
mixing of English with non-Roman scripts.

New Englishes. Standards
Metropolitan standards:
The term would have once been applicable only to standard English of England.

New Englishes
Colonial standards: The colonial history of English has made it an important language in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe).
The varieties spoken there are referred to in historical dialectology as ‘extraterritorial’ Englishes.

New Englishes
Regional dialects:
These are the varieties that may be distinguished on the basis of regional variation within metropolis and colony.

New Englishes
Social dialects: identifiable varieties within a region along the lines of class and ethnicity may occur.
In London there is the difference between Cockney of the working classes,
Received pronunciation (RP)
‘Estuary English’ (Rosewarne 1994).

New Englishes. Standards
Pidgin Englishes: Pidgins are defined prototypically as rudimentary languages that have no native speakers, though they may subsequently gain in complexity.
Creole Englishes: These languages are ‘mixed’ in the sense that typically their grammars and lexicons come from different sources

New Englishes. Standards
Language-shift Englishes: These are varieties that develop when English replaces the primary language(s) of a community.
Thus Hiberno English is probably best classified as a social dialect in most areas of Ireland today; not so long ago it would have counted as a language-shift variety, with L1 and L2 speakers of the dialect closely interacting with each other

New Englishes. Standards
Hybrid Englishes: Also called ‘bilingual mixed languages’, these are versions of English which occur in code-mixing in many urban centres where a local language comes into contact with English
(hybrid Hindi-English )

World English. Agenda
Education, language and the rights of the child
American English as a medium of intercultural communication
WE – response to globalization
British attitude towards variability of English

World English
Ghana
(Семенец О.Е.,1985)
Linguist – a person who speaks on behalf of a tribe leader
Oracle - herbalist
(Quack - in Western Africa)

World Englishes
Ghana
Cover cloth - overcoat
Canvas – shoes
A motor - bicycle
Storey – (storeyhouse) – more than 1

World Englishes
Ghana
Electrolux – any fridge
Colgate - any ---
Kodak - any ---
Hoover - any –
To take seed/ to take in - to become pregnant

World Englishes
Franglaise = Frenglish
Germish = Denglish
Swedlish
Spanglish
Janglish = Japlish
Konglish (Korea)
Portuguish

Common Features of WE
Many New Englishes show a greater preference for forming yes/no questions by a rising intonation pattern, rather than by auxiliary inversion.
She’s coming tomorrow? (=‘Is she coming tomorrow?’ – IndSAf Eng)
She promised you? (Sgp Eng)
Anthony learned this from you or you learned this from Anthony? (Sgp Eng)

Common Features of WE
To my sister sometime I speak English. (Sgp Eng)
Q: Zulu? (i.e. Do you speak Zulu as well?)
A: Yah, and Zulu I speak.

Common Features of WE
Bokamba (1992:138--40) notes a common tendency in sub-Saharan African Eng to reduplicate adjectives to form adverbs:
Quickquick ‘quickly’;
small-small ‘in small doses’;
slow-slow ‘slowly’.
Kachru notes examples like different-different things and one-one piece.
The semantics here is distributive, with a stylistic nuance of emphasis.

World Englishes
In Ind Eng wh-words can be reduplicated with the semantics ‘plural/distributive’ based on details of the syntax of the Indic substrates.
Who-who came? (= ‘Who (of several people) came?)
What-what they said? (= ‘What (different) things did they say?’)

Common Features of WE
The use of -s plural markers is overgeneralized.
luggages, furnitures, firewoods, or grasses
discontents, informations

Divergence
NURSE
There is immense variation in the realisation of the NURSE vowel:
[a] in northern Nig Eng and as a lesser alternative in Ind Eng;
[ε] in SAf Eng, southern Nig Eng, Ghan Eng, in the rhotic Phl
Eng; and as a lesser alternative in Cam Eng;
[a] in EAfr Eng and as a lesser alternative in Nig Eng;
[ɔ] in Cam Eng;
[ə] in Sgp Eng, Mal Eng and as a lesser alternative in Ind Eng;

Singlish
English in Singapore = English –based creole spoken colloquially in Singapore
Numerous cases of code-switching
(Chinese, Malay, Tamil)
Broken English/ bad English → Speak Good English Movement
Schools discourage students from taking Singlish

Singlish
Singlish is often used for humorous effect, when the audience is local
In the Army
Coffee-shops & restaurants

Singlish
Sociolect phenomenon
Acrolectal - high-class form, well-educated people in informal situations, close to BrE
This guy’s Singlish is very good

Singlish
Mesolectal – middle class, semi-formal situations
Dis guy Singlish very powerful one

Singlish
Basilectal – colloquial, unique lexical, phonological & grammatical features
Dis guy Singlish is bey powerful one

Singlish
Sometimes, analysts prefer to use the terms basilang, mesolang and acrolang, rather than basilect, mesolect and acrolect, to emphasise that they are dealing with developing competence in an L2

Singlish Phonology
/p/ t/ k/ become unaspirated esp among Malay Singaporeans →
Pat, tin, come → bat, din, gum
/t/ /d/ → three → tree, then → den

Singlish Phonology
The distinction between /l/ & /r/ not found at basilectal level - “Use your blain!”
Plural – s is often omitted which might be the result of Chinese influence which does not distinguish between single and plural forms

Singlish Phonology
Singlish is syllable-timed compared with other varierties of English which are stress-timed
Pitch tones are well-defined, tones resemble Chinese
Singlish tends to preserve tone of loan words from Mandarin and other languages

Singlish Grammar
Nouns are optionally marked for plurality. Articles are optional too.
He can play piano.
I like to read novel.
Your computer got virus one, izzit?

Singlish
As a copular and auxiliary verb be is often omitted:
Dis house very nice
Dat car not worth the money
You looking for trouble, izzit?

Singlish
Past Tense markers are optional :
He talk for so long, never stop, not even when I ask him.
I eat liao ( I ate or I have eaten)
How come he never pay just now? (Negation+ past tense marker)

Singlish Grammar
Interrogative
This book you want or not?
Can or not?
They never study, is it?
You don’t like that, is it?

Singlish Grammar
Reduplication
My boy-boy is going to primary school.
We two friend-friend one.
Want to go Orher walk walk see see or not? (Orchard Road)
You got take the small-small one.

Singlish Grammar
Kena is an auxiliary to mark the passive voice:
He was scolded – He kena scold (negative evauation)
VS
* he kena praised.

Singlish Discouse Particles
Lah - Drink, lah! – Come on, drink! ( in the end of the sentence to assert solidarity)
What / wat/ - But he very good at sports what!
Mah – This one can also work mah!
Leh – command, complaint, claim:
Give me leh!

Pragmatics and Discourse
Daughter: Mum, it’s private. How can I let you read it?
Mother: Can la. I’m your own mother.
Wife: You bought cheese, Farouk? (= ‘Did you buy cheese, Farouk?’)
Husband: No’, but lot butter I bought. (= ‘No, though I did buy a lot of butter’) (No’ = [noυ])

Pragmatics and Discourse
A: Why didn’t you come in?
B: You told me to wait here, what

Singlish
Bao (2005:239) discusses yet another perfective innovation in Sgp Eng:
the use of aspectual ever, as in
I ever see the movie. (= ‘I have seen the movie’)
This share ever hit forty dollars. (= ‘This share was once forty dollars’)

Singlish
Existential be versus get: In some varieties existential be is replaced by got, especially in the phrase there is/exists:
Here got very many people. (= ‘There are many people here’
Got one ghost over there (= ‘There’s a ghost over there’ – basilect)

Singlish vocabulary
Chop – stamp – “eh, your passport got kens chop or not ah?’
Follow – accompany – Can I follow?”

Singlish vocabulary
Eye –power – sb who watches how others work
My English not powerful
Got problem is it? - aggressive

English in Singapore. LPP
However, the state has recently argued that, in addition to heritage reasons, Mandarin should also be learned in order to take advantage of China’s growing economy, thereby actively conceding that instrumental value is an important motivating factor in language choice. As a result, Mandarin is now becoming so popular that a growing number of non- Chinese parents want schools to allow their children to study the language.

English in Singapore. LPP
This new emphasis on Mandarin as a language commodity has led to concerns within the Chinese community that the language is being learnt for the ‘wrong’ reasons: the language is being treated less as an emblem of local ethnicity and more as an economic resource for conducting business negotiations with China.

English in Singapore. LPP
More generally, these developments potentially undermine the multiracial logic of the policy, since the equal status that all three mother tongues are supposed to enjoy is compromised by the fact that neither Malay nor Tamil can be claimed to enjoy the same level of economic cachet as Mandarin

Manglish / Malgish
Variant of colloquial English spoken in Malaysia. The language shares a substantial pool with Singlish, some experts claim they are the same languages with a few slang words found in one and non-existent in another.

Manglish / Malgish
Malay is the country’s official language since 1968. As English is widely spoken, many Malay words penetrated into informal English or Mangled English. The impact of other languages ( Mandarin, Cantonese, Tamil, Hokkien) spoken in Malaysia is also taken into account.

Manglish
Many speakers of Manglish belonging to various ethnic groups tend to pepper their speech with the words from their mother tongue which is the example of code-switching

Manglish / Malgish
Manglish particles
Lah – used in the end of the sentence to affirm a statement which often ends with an exclamation mark
Don’t be an idiot lah!
Mah – less intensive than lah
She’s like that mah

Manglish / Malgish
Manglish particles
Liao - means ‘ already’
No more liao!
Meh – used in questions , often skeptical
Really meh

Manglish / Malgish
Manglish particles
Lor - used when explaining smth
Like that lor!
One - used as an emphasis in the end of the sentence
Why is she so naughty one?

Manglish / Malgish
Manglish particles
What - unlike AE & BrE is used with an exclamation mark
What! How could you do that?

Manglish Vocabulary
Kapster – a talkative person
Blur – confused
Jalan – to walk
Kena – to get caught
Makan – to eat
Minum – to drink

Manglish Vocabulary
On/ off - to activate/ deactivate
Pon – to skip school
Saman – to issue a traffic ticket

Manglish Vocabulary
Exclamations
Best/ syok – indicates that the object is superlatively good
Die/ finish/ gone – to indicate trouble like English ‘damn it’

Manglish Vocabulary
Many things were borrowed from Chinese dialects:
Why are you so like that one? =
Why are you behaving in that way? (BrE)

Manglish Spelling
Lately strongly affected by AE
( documents, web)
For most cases Manglish is a spoken tongue

Manglish Vocabulary
HP ( handphone) - mobile/ cell phone
KIV – keep in view - keep for further consideration
Outstation - out of town/ overseas
MC – He is on MC today ( medical certificate) - sick note

Manglish Vocabulary
Can - yes/ alright
Cannot - no
Photostat - photocopy, Xerox

Manglish Vocabulary
Different meanings
Driver - a personal chauffeur/ odd job man, often sent on errand
Alphabet – a letter of alphabet ( The word ‘vase’ has four alphabets.

Manglish Vocabulary
Bungalow - a mansion for the rich and/ or famous

Philippine English
English functions in Manila since 1762 when the British invaded the country, but got rooted in 1898 when the USA took the government. Americans set up education system with English as the language of education.

Philippine English
After independence the Philippines government followed the same line with parallel usage of Filipino. In private schools arranged by Catholic Church dual system is valid and English prevails.

Philippine English
Nearly all people of Philippines are bilingual at least as they speak one of the local languages (Tagalog, Ilokano, Cebuano) and Filipino/ or English as their second language. Many children speak English as their first language.

Philippine English
American spelling prevails.
Educated people prefer American pronunciation.
Mispronunciation
lead /i/ as in leader
salmon / l/ is pronounced
climber / b/ is pronounced

Philippine English
Wrong syllables are stressed:
Comfortable - /komFORtabl/
Preferable /preFERabl/
Admirable /adMYrabl/
Category /kaTEGori/
Ceremony /seREmoni/

Philippine English
Short /u/ turns into long /u/:
Frustration / froostr../
Suspend /soospend/
T, k, p are pronounced without aspiration

Philippine English
Vocabulary and usage
C.R. – Comfort Room = toilet, bathroom
Get/ go down the bus – get off the bus
Open/ close the light – Switch on/off the
Every now and then - often

Taglish
Any English verb and even some nouns can be converted into Tagalog verbs
Magda- drive = will drive
Nag-Internet = have used the Internet
Taglish is often used in code-switching

Japlish/ Janglish/ Engrish
Japlish/ Janglish are typically considered more derogatory and referred to any East Asian language.
Engrish is a pejorative term used to describe attempts of Japanese writers to create English words and phrases, or mistranslation of an original Japanese text, exotic embellishment of the text in ads.

Engrish
Engrish is applied to East Asian languages as they do not separate L and R sounds.
Engrish refers to Japanese pronunciation of English loan words.
Engrish occurs commonly in electronics produce manuals.
Engrish is used in Japanese pop culture as English is considered to be extremely fashionable.

Engrish
Humorous English mistakes which appear in Japanese advertising and product design
Engrish can be found in other countries but the funniest examples come from Japan

Nihonglish
Badly pronounced and ungrammatical Japanese produced by a native English speaker. Usage is intentional either with sarcastic or humorous intent.
NB! Japanese bites back!

English in Japan
Some of the English-based Japanese coinages can be used as Japanese originated English.
Actually, walkman, karaoke, play station, case-by-case, or forward-looking have already been received internationally, while nighter (bargain), washlet, hot carpet, or paper driver may have a good chance of adoption if appropriately introduced.

Japlish
The use of my- as a prefix may have a rough time winning international approval but will be considered a Japanese neologism if resorted to by a sizable number of speakers: “I have two my-cars; Did you come here in my-car?”

English in China
Chinese has no articles at all.
(a) Article omission:
Let’s make fire.
I can play piano.

English in China
Article insertion:
He finished the school last year.
He was in a pain.
Interchangeability of articles:
Xiao Ying is a tallest girl in the class.
He smashed the vase in the rage.

English and Politeness in Asian society
Kinship terms such as sister, uncle, auntie are also used for politeness.
IE speakers also at times juxtapose idioms in novel ways, e.g.: “I am in very good health and hope you are in the same boat”

Hong-Kong English
Hong-Kong English is non-rhotic
Wr is read like /w/
/r/ is read like /l/ - /flied lice /
Multi-syllable words are often wrongly stressed since Chinese is tonal and monosyllabic
Bad & bed sound the same way

Hong-Kong English
Articles are either confused or dropped
Is & are often confused and wrongly used
Difficulties with numbers larger ten thousand. Chinese speakers often make a pause because they need mental conversion. 100 thousand is read like 10 myriad.

Hong-Kong English
Vocabulary
Tai-Pan is a business executive for a large corporation
A chop is a seal or a stamp.

West Africa
I met the teacher our new. (‘I met our new teacher’)
That your brother, will he come? (‘Will that brother of yours come?’)

Caribbean English
/v/–/w/ merger
Many dialects of Caribbean English (e.g., Bahamian, Bermudan, and Vincentian)may alternate [w], [β] (the voiced bilabial fricative), or [υ] (the voiced labiodental
approximant) for words which in metropolitan varieties begin with [v] village [wIlID ].

Caribbean English
Word-initial /h/
So-called “h-dropping” or word-initial “h-deletion” is common in Jamaica and in the Bahamas as well :
hair and air are homophonous (both are sometimes [Iεr]).
H-dropping also occurs in other dialects of English; often British Cockney is cited as the source of h-dropping in English-derived Caribbean varieties.

Caribbean English
Th-stopping
The neutralization of /D/ and /θ/ as /d/ and /t/, e.g., /tIи/ thing and /fada/ father, is a common feature of many dialects of Caribbean English
thin–tin [tIn],
faith–fate [fet],
though–dough [do],
breathe–breed [brid]

Caribbean English
Neutralization appears to operate particularly readily in the environment preceding an /r/ in an onset consonant cluster:
three–tree [tri:], through–tru [tru:], though often these segments are realized as palatalized allophones [Tru:] or [Tro:].