History of International Relations

March 1953-June 1953 – 'Troika' – Malenkov, Beria, Molotov
June 1953- March 1955 – Malenkov
March 1955 - October 1964 - Krushchev
Leadership changes in the Soviet Union 1953-63

Leadership changes in the United States
November 1952-January 1961 – Dwight D. Eisenhower
January 1961- November 1963 – John F. Kennedy

Nikita Krushchev (1894-1971)

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969)

John F. Kennedy (1917-1963)

Lecture outline
1)The paradox of a ‘thaw’ and Cold War Intensification after Stalin
2) New American srategies of fighting of the Cold War via the use of nuclear weapons
3) Fighting the Cold War: US Offensive Strategies
4) Post–Stalin peace efforts and arms control 1953-6
5) Discussions over the future of Germany 1953-6
6) Instability in the Soviet bloc: the East Berlin Revolt 1953
7) Instability in the Soviet bloc: the initial Hungarian Revolt 1956
8) The revolt’s bloody conclusion in Hungary
9) The Berlin Crisis 1958-61
10) The Cuban Missile Crisis
11)Conclusions

1)The paradox of a ‘thaw’ and Cold War Intensification after Stalin
Improved relations? - Reform thinking in the Soviet Union – new approach after death of Stalin?
- Soviet leadership troika, Malenkov, Beria, Molotov more conciliatory
- The importance of avoiding Hot War
- Beria, proposal of 'de-Bolshevisation'
- Molotov’s 'peace offensive'
- Malenkov – anti-nuclear war agenda - 1953-5
- Rise of Khrushchev
- Focus on consumerism instead of just military and industry
- Khrushchev’s commitment to peaceful co-existence, disarmament proposals and diplomacy
US Policy – Dwight D. Eisenhower – fight cold war but unsure about excessive rearmament – attempts at coexistence
But Cold War intensification – covert operations and security – 'Project Control' 'Operation Home run', George Blake
- propaganda also intensifies
- growing Soviet interest in the non-European world
- the strengthening of the two blocs

2) New American strategies of fighting the Cold War via the use of Nuclear weapons
Eisenhower turns away from Truman's focus on rearmament – why?
a) Worried about a loss of personal freedoms
b) Incredible expense of maintaining regular armed forces
Eisenhower supports the Idea of using Nuclear weapons a deterrent
Classic example of this the ‘New Look’ strategy of autumn 1953
- Mixture of nuclear weapons, conventional weapons and intelligence + more of a reliance on cold war allies to support the United States
But this increased focus on nuclear weapons brought new worries in the 1950s - two related examples:
Sputnik October 1957
- US hysteria after the launch – fear Soviets have advantage in terms of technology
The Gaither Committee final report November 1957 – how to deal with nuclear attack
- Belief that the Soviets were ahead of the US in terms of nuclear weapons – the so-called 'missile gap'
- Agressive attitudes within the US military - Curtis Le May if they attack: 'We'll knock the shit out of them.'
- Luckily Eisenhower doesn't overact to these reports – plays down their importance

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969)

3) Fighting the Cold War: the US Offensive Strategies
Criticism of NSC 68 in 1953
- no disintegration of Soviet power
- no transformation of Soviet ideology and diplomacy
- no precise war plan to overthrow the Soviet regime
Operation Solarium June 1953 – establishes new policy options – 3 teams -
Team A - focuses on rolback in Eastern Europe but also works on peaceful co-existence with Soviets in the short term
Team B – integrates Nuclear weapons into the US' Cold War strategy
Team C - aims at - among other things - the end of USSR control of Eastern European satellite states by 1965
- Becomes clear relatively quickly that Team C's plans were unrealistic
US focuses more on Team A's work – I.e. peaceful coexistence with the support of covert operations
Eventual move away from aggressive rollback as the fifties went on

4) Post–Stalin peace efforts and arms control - 1953-6
Fear of nuclear war brings both sides to the negotiating table
Dualism of the period – seeking peace publicly but also interested in maintaining their power
Were these peace moves genuine? Disarmament dilemma of the United Statess
Soviet proposals
- Malenkov’s 1953 call for an international body to supervise comprehensive disarmament after the creation of the UN Disarmament Commission in 1951
- no first use agreement, 1954 – both proposals rejected by the USA
The American response
- Eisenhower’s ‘Chance for Peace’ speech, April 1953
- This presented a 5 point plan Anglo-American plan for arms reduction
- Eisenhower’s ‘Atoms for Peace’ speech, December 1953 – issue of nuclear weapons brought into the open

Five point plan – 'Chance for Peace'
1. The limitation, by absolute numbers or by an agreed international ratio, of the sizes of the military and security forces of all nations.
2. A commitment by all nations to set an agreed limit upon that proportion of total production of certain strategic materials to be devoted to military purposes.
3. International control of atomic energy to promote its use for peaceful purposes only and to insure the prohibition of atomic weapons.
4. A limitation or prohibition of other categories of weapons of great destructiveness.
5. The enforcement of all these agreed limitations and prohibitions by adequate safeguards, including a practical system of inspection under the United Nations.

4) Post-Stalin peace efforts and arms control 1955-6 continued
Soviet (at least publicly) put a lot of emphasis on the issue of disarmament
- Britain and France also strongly in support of this – fear of nuclear war
- Soviets in early 1955 propose on-site inspections of nuclear weapons by a central agency – rejection by US
-Austrian peace treaty – relaxation of tension – Austria becomes an independent state
- July 1955 Geneva Summit – big four meet up talk about general issues of global security
Eisenhower’s ‘Open Skies’ speech at Geneva – proposes a free exchange of security information – Soviets reject the proposal – was E serious about this offer?
Peaceful co-existence at this point basically accepted by both sides
- But high-point of Soviet-US talks – serious discussions don't come again until after the Cuban missile crisis

5) Discussions over the future of Germany - 1953-6
Germany still divided – some sort of agreement needs to be reached
- Discussions surrounding Germany’s economic and military strength – should it be reunited or not?
- Both sides seek to contain Germany
Soviets afraid of: German revanchism, West German acquisition of nuclear weapons and the creation of a West European Defence Community with a rearmed West Germany
Soviets sought: the demilitarisation of a future reunited Germany and they thus put forward several proposals regarding German unification
- Despite this they eventually move to consolidate East Germany – 1956 - part of the Warsaw pact – Soviet troops stationed there
US afraid that: Discussions about the future of Germany would bring divisions among their allies and that Communism might be strong in a united Germany
US sought: to strengthen and re-arm West Germany
- Eventually the US moves to consolidate West Germany - member of NATO and an independent state in 1955 – US troops stationed there
Consolidation of East and West Germany within the two blocs by 1956

6)Instability in the Soviet bloc: the East Berlin Revolt 1953
How were Soviets supposed to behave towards their satellites post-Stalin period?
Liberalisation or continued Stalinism?
East German a specific case – Soviets try to:
- Stop people seeking to escape to West Germany
- One way of doing so - make East Germany more controllable through rigid economic discipline
Attempt to collectivize in 1952
Unsuccessful reforms – many flee to the West – 100,000 early 1953
Questioning of reforms
Liberalisation introduced in East Germany – but these reforms move too quickly
The 1953 revolt
- workers come out on the street to protest – June 16 – June 17 – 20,000 on the streets – Soviet tanks come in to stop the revolt
Consequences
- greater Soviet incentive to consolidate and formalize the division of Germany
- slowing of the pace of change in East Germany

E. Berlin Revolt June 1953

7) Instability in the Soviet bloc: the initial Hungarian Revolt 1956
Post-Stalin in the rest of the Eastern Bloc
Watershed moment in Eastern Europe – Krushchev speech at 20th Party Congress – February 1956 – criticising Stalin
Greater freedom across the Eastern bloc – Stand off in Poland – October 1956 – Bierut, Gomulka and Krushchev – deal worked out – eventual liberalisation in Poland
Hungary – Imre Nagy’s reforms (1953-5)
- against concentration on heavy industry
- release of some political prisoners
- led to replacement by Rakosi in 1955
Protests emerge in October 1956 -
Workers wanted factory committees not control through Communist party
- resentment at Moscow control
- student demo in Budapest 23 October – 200,000 on the streets, spreads to other areas
Soviet troops arrive 24 October, Imre Nagy returns to power, appeal to demonstrators to stop violence
Armed resistance continues on the streets of Budapest – uneasy truce
28 October: Soviet withdrawal of troops from Budapest

8) The revolt’s bloody conclusion in Hungary
Soviet domestic opposition to withdrawal of troops from Budapest
- Soviet leaders worry about the propaganda disaster of the revolt
- But don't want to be too repressive due to world opinion looking on
New international developments
- Israeli invasion of Egypt 29 October
- British bombing of Egypt 31 October – Suez crisis
- As a result US announce non-intervention in the affairs of other countries
US decision + Soviet fear of losing out in Europe and the Middle East convinces Moscow to redeploy troops in Hungary
Soviets redeploy troops in Hungary, October 31 1956
25,000 die, 200,000 escape – Imre Nagy replaced and executed
Consequences – West pull back from offensive cold war strategies due to Soviet actions

9) The Berlin Crisis 1958-61
Importance of Berlin – Germany divided but Berlin relatively open
- important enough for US to risk general war
- centre of western offensive Cold War measures
- tunnel for eavesdropping
Soviet concerns over Berlin in the 1950s
- Western subversion
- the flow of refugees to the West
- West Berlin an embarassment for the Soviet Union – bad for propaganda – Easterners can compare their economic situation there
US concerns
- maintaining access through East Germany
- no practical conventional defence for Berlin in case of a Hot war
Soviet attempts to put pressure on the West - November 1958
- Krushchev demands that Berlin become a free city in 6 months or East Germany should be given full sovereignty over the city
- Shock and anger from the American side

Division of Germany

Nikita Krushchev (1894-1971)

John F. Kennedy (1917-1963)

9) The Berlin Crisis 1958-61
Soviet ultimatum expires 1959 - Krushchev in 1960 waits to exploit the new, inexperienced Kennedy administration
Pressure from Walter Ulbricht to solve the growing exodus problem – 200,000 escape in 1960. Proposes to:
- make Berlin a free city
- formalize the division of Germany in a 4 power treaty
- to give East Germany control of access routes to Berlin
1961 - Khrushchev tries to put pressure on Kennedy
- Vienna meeting with Kennedy 1961- attempt at intimidation via a 6 month ultimatum
America was determined to preserve the status quo – useful for spying etc
- America doesn't want to give the upper hand to the Soviets
- West European politicians anxious about potential war
Stage was set for another crisis
- US conventional arms build up
- Soviet defence budget increases by 33%
- Krushchev proposes the building of the wall – August 1961 – Kennedy tacit acceptance
Consequences – spheres of influence accepted – drawback from crisis

The Building of the Berlin Wall – August 1961

The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962

10) The Cuban Missile Crisis
Why did Krushchev decide to install the missiles on Cuba in April1962?:
- Krushchev likes to take risks – as shown by past actions regarding Berlin
- to protect Castro from American aggression and assassination – Bay of Pigs – April 1961
- to show the world the Soviet were strong in terms of nuclear weapons
- to appease domestic critics
- Khrushchev believed Kennedy was a weak president
US discovers the missiles in October 1962 – provokes strong reactions:
- Shock and anger across the United States
- JFK quickly forms an Executive committee to discuss different plans of action
- Some members of the Executive committee called for an air-strike
- Kennedy and other more moderate members decide on a quarantine
- Krushchev writes letters to JFK proposing solutions
- Krushchev eventually agrees to back down after JFK agrees to remove nuclear weapons from Turkey
Consequences for the Cold War
-increased need to reduce the risk of Hot War and move towards peaceful co-existence
- Moves towards discussions regarding disarmamenr/nuclear weapons
- US accept Soviet Union as a main power
- America agrees to accept Cuba as a Communist country