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- 2. INTRODUCTION The Meanings of Grammar The Grammatical Structure of Language. Main Types of Grammar. Methods of
- 3. The 1st thing meant by “grammar” is “the set of formal patterns in which the words
- 4. The 2nd sense in which the people use the word “grammar” is linguistic etiquette”. The word
- 5. The 3-d meaning of grammar is the branch of linguistic science which is concerned with the
- 6. So the 3 meanings of the term “grammar” are: Grammar I – a form of behavior;
- 7. Grammar as a branch of linguistic science studies the grammatical structure of a language. The term
- 9. These are : (1) simplicity, (2) consistency, (3) completeness, and (4) usefulness for predicting the behavior
- 10. Linguistics Form Meaning Society Communication Mind Prescriptive Descriptive Functional Structural Pragmatics Semantics Cognitive Anthropological Social Conversation
- 11. The levels of Language Structure.
- 12. The basic units of language structure are: the phoneme, the morpheme, the word, the phrase, and
- 13. The basic units ____________________________________________________________ Text ______________________________________________________ Sentence What feeling did you experience? - Awe ______________________________________________ Phrase
- 14. A grammatical category (GC) Grammatical categories may be defined as generalized grammatical meanings, characteristic of a
- 15. The notion of GC applies to the plane of content of morphological paradigmatic units; It refers
- 16. TYPES OF GRAMMAR Prescriptive Grammar Descriptive grammar Contrastive grammar Historical grammar Comparative grammar General grammar Functional
- 17. Nonsense ‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mymsy
- 18. Translations Варкалось. Хливкие шорьки Пырялись по наве, И хрюкотали зелюки, Как мюмзики в мове. (Н.Демурова)
- 19. Сверкалось. Скойкие сюды Волчились у развел. Дрожали в лужасе грозды, И крюх засвирепел. (Вл.Орел)
- 20. Methods of Linguistic Investigation: the Reed-Kellog diagrams The sentence The Diagram Horses run. Horses │ run.
- 21. The sentence type subject + verb + object Bakers │ make bread The rancher sold
- 22. A prepositional phrase He brought the horse to town. He │ brought ׀ horse. to town
- 23. Subject + Verb + Indirect object + direct object He gave the dog a bone. He
- 24. Subject + linking verb + N/Adj/Adv The horse seems tired. Horse │ seems \ tired. b)
- 25. The next diagram feature is the line slanted to the right They named him president. They
- 26. Modifiers are slung below the line The three new hounds quickly found the scent. Hounds │
- 27. The plot was clear before the beginning of the first commercial Plot │ was \ clear
- 28. Analysis by Immediate Constituents Usually the train comes on time. Train │ comes____________ the usually on
- 29. Modification Most of the time | the snow melts within a day When she heard that,
- 30. Predication The man | walked in. The old woman in the gray suit | walked over
- 31. Example Usually he walked Predication Modification
- 32. A structure of subordination whenever he │ comes to town Predication Subordination Subordinating conjunctions are: after,
- 33. Prepositional Phrase in │ the car that John bought Subordination to │ come out of practice
- 34. A Noun Phrase 1 The old red car │ in the garage with the Modification rusted
- 35. Noun Phrase 2 The old red car in the garage│with the new cement floor Modification Subordination
- 36. Noun Phrase 3 the old red │ car in the garage Modification Modification Modification Modifucation
- 37. Pre-Verbal Modifiers quickly │ ran to the house modification
- 38. Modifiers after the verb usually awoke │ when he heard her voice Modification Modification
- 39. A complement of the verb John hit the ball. He gave John the ball A complement
- 40. Complements = modifiers Gave │ John the ball complementation complementation
- 41. Hit │ the ball hard Complementation Modification
- 42. The Sentence Diagram This car was built by union │ labor Modification Subordination Modification Modification Predication
- 43. The first of the men left his jacket in the car
- 44. Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) Grammar is a set of rules for forming sentences. (N.Chomsky) A grammar
- 45. The term ‘transformation’ is borrowed from mathematics where it refers to a process of altering the
- 46. Sentence structure S → NP + VP VP → Aux + MV { V } MV
- 47. The man hit the ball. S → NP +VP VP → Vt +NP NP → Art
- 48. Kernel sentences are the basic, elementary sentences of the language, the stuff from which all else
- 49. Patterns of kernel sentences NvV– John came. NvVPN – John looked at Mary NvVN – John
- 50. Transforms Transforms are all other sentences which are derived from kernel sentences by means of transformations.
- 51. Cases of structural homonymy “John is easy to please.” “John is eager to please”
- 52. John is eager to please John is eager to V → John is eager to please
- 53. John is easy to please. It is easy → It is easy (for X) to please
- 54. “Flying planes can be dangerous” Planes fly. → Flying planes can be dangerous. They are dangerous.
- 55. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX Morphology is defined as that part of grammar which treats of the parts
- 56. Syntax is usually defined as that part of grammar, which treats of the rules according to
- 57. Morphemes - the smallest meaningful elements into which words can be analyzed Grammatical morphemes are scarce
- 58. form-building (morphological) morphemes (e.g.: -ed of the Past) as opposed to word-building (lexical) ones (e.g.: -ment
- 59. I.B.Khlebnikova suggests the theory according to which the morphemes always form part of a grammeme (word-form).
- 60. The morpheme itself has a purely relational grammatical meaning which is revealed only by contrast with
- 61. The term ‘grammeme’ presents an isolated unit, not part of the word. It is a carrier
- 62. PARTS OF SPEECH Greek grammarians - 3 parts of speech - names, sayings, and joinings or
- 63. The earliest English grammars Parts of speech: Declinable - nouns, pronouns, verbs and participles Indeclinable -
- 64. Ben Jonson - the article as the 9th part of speech. J. Brightland - 4 parts
- 65. H. Sweet Three main features characterizing the parts of speech, namely meaning, form and function,
- 66. Two main groups declinable noun-words: noun, noun-pronoun, noun-numeral, infinitive, gerund, adjective-words: adjective, adjective-pronoun, adjective-numeral, participles. verb:
- 67. indeclinable (particles): adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.
- 68. O. Jespersen 5 word-classes: (1) Substantives (including proper nouns). (2) Adjectives. (3) Pronouns (including numerals and
- 69. “The Three Ranks” Theory an extremely hot weather a furiously barking dog weather, dog - primary
- 70. J.C. Nesfield's grammar “Words are classified according to the purpose that they are used for and
- 71. A Noun is a word used for naming some person or thing. A Pronoun is a
- 72. (6) A Conjunction is a word used to join words or phrases together, or one clause
- 73. Ch. Fries Parts of speech are "form-classes” which are "functioning patterns" and they are distinguished by
- 74. Words of Class I: Frame A: The concert was good food coffee
- 75. Frame B: The clerk remembered the tax Husband food Woman coffee
- 76. Frame C: The team went there. husband woman
- 77. WORDS OF CLASS II Class I Class II The___ is / was good _____ s are
- 78. WORDS OF CLASS 3: class class class class 3 1 2 3 (The) good ____(s) is
- 79. WORDS OF CLASS 4: class class class class class 3 1 2 3 4 (The) __
- 80. ‘Function words’ Group A: no, your, both, few, Jon’s, one, four, most, that, etc. Group B:
- 81. Group F: the position of at. Group G: do (does, did). Group H: there (in there
- 82. The general current definition of parts of speech places them as lexico-grammatical word-classes which are characterized
- 83. 3 principles meaning, form, function.
- 84. Meaning “the meaning common to all the words of the given class and constituting its essence.”
- 85. By form The morphological characteristics of a type of word is meant.
- 86. By function the syntactical properties of a type of word are meant
- 87. Notional and Functional P.of S. Ilyish, B.A. Kobrina, N.A., Korneeva E.A. Blokh, M.Y. Ivanova, I.P., B.B.Burlakova,
- 88. NOUNS the categorical meaning of substance ("thingness"); the changeable forms of number and case; the substantive
- 89. M.Y.Blokh: 4 subclasses Noun proper common count. uncount. animate inanimate human non-human
- 90. Traditional semantic characteristics of all the nouns: Nouns common Proper count uncount Concrete Abstract material abstaract
- 91. Morphological composition Simple: one-root morpheme Derived: one-root morph. + der.affixes Compound: 2 or more stems
- 92. Noun: Number. The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of
- 93. Noun: CASE. Grammatical case is the relation in which one noun (or pronoun) stands to some
- 94. Old English - 5 cases: Nominative, Vocative, Accusitive, Genetive and Dative
- 95. “Theory of the positional cases". The nominative case (subject to a verb: Rain falls. The vocative
- 96. “Theory of prepositional cases" the "dative case" (to + Noun, for + Noun) and the "genitive"
- 97. Limited case theory 2 cases in English, one of them featured and the other one unfeatured.
- 98. The common case is unmarked, it has no inflexion (zero inflection) and its meaning is very
- 99. Genitive Case The main modifications of this meaning are: 1. The idea of belonging: John's coat,
- 100. Besides the genitive case can also denote subjective relations: Chekhov's observation = Chekhov observed; the doctor's
- 101. objective relations: Caesar's murder- Caesar was murdered; measure: an hour's trip; a mile's
- 102. Postpositional theory 1) The use of -'s is optional (her brother's, of her brother); It is
- 103. Noun: Gender J.C.Nesfield speaks of 4 genders in English: the Masculine (that denotes a male); the
- 104. Masculine and Feminine 3 different ways: 1) By a change of word: boy - girl; cock-hen;
- 105. Traditional associations moon and earth are referred to as feminine, sun as masculine; the names of
- 106. THE ARTICLE 1) Is the article a separate part of speech? 2) It is not clear
- 107. The article as a separate part of speech? E. Kruisinga O. Jespersen, H.Sweet, G.Curme H.Poutsma and
- 108. Is the article a word or a morpheme? A(n) and the are not devoid of lexical
- 109. The number of articles 3 articles: Indefinite, Definite and Zero 2 articles: Definite and Indefinite
- 110. The grammatical meaning 3 functions: morphological, syntactical and semantical. Morphologically it is used to determine a
- 111. THE VERB. 1. 'A verb is a word for saying something about some person or thing';
- 112. Characteristic features Meaning: the verb as a part of speech denotes process or state; Form: elaborate
- 113. MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION. simple - to go derivative - root morpheme + one or more derivational morphemes
- 114. Regular and Irregular verbs The regular verbs - suffix -ed added to the stem of the
- 115. Irregular verbs: 8 groups Verbs changing their root vowel: begin- began – begun 2. Verbs changing
- 116. 5. Verbs having the same vowel and some consonant change: catch – caught – caught; 6.
- 117. Semantic Classifications Verbs Notional Semi – notional Trans. Intr. Aux. Link-V Termin. Non-termin. modal
- 118. THE CATEGORY OF PERSON the relation of the action and its doer to the speaker, showing
- 119. THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one
- 120. THE CATEGORY OF TENSE a verbal category which reflects the objective category of time and expresses
- 121. Number of Tenses 2 Tenses - R.A. Close, O. Jespersen 3 Tenses – Russian linguists 4
- 122. 2 TENSES
- 123. Forms to indicate the future time 1. George will leave tomorrow. 2. George is going to
- 124. 6 Tenses
- 125. The English tense can be defined as a category expressing the time relations of an action
- 126. THE CATEGORY OF ASPECT shows the way or manner in which an action is performed, that
- 127. A Category of Semantics the 'terminate' aspect representing an action as a whole; the 'ingressive' aspect
- 128. Tense-Aspect Category Aspect can not be severed from tense and is its part.
- 129. Aspect – A Separate Category the category of aspect is constituted by the opposition of the
- 130. THE CATEGORY OF CORRELATON a peculiar tense category; a peculiar aspect category; the "tense-aspect" category; a
- 131. A peculiar tense category H. Sweet, G.Curme, M. Bryant, J.Aiken, O.Jespersen, N.F.Irtenyeva, M.A.Ganshina & N.M.Vasilevskaya
- 132. A peculiar aspect category M.Deutschbein, E.A. Sonnenschein, A.S.West, G.N.Vorontsova
- 133. The "tense-aspect" category I.P. Ivanova – temporal + aspective functions – indefinite forms
- 134. A separate category B.A. Ilyish, B.S.Khaimovich & B.I.Rogovskaya, J.Trager, H.Smith & W.Francis, L.S.Barhudarov, M.Y. Blokh
- 136. THE CATEGORY OF MOOD Mood as a grammatical category of the verb reflects the relation of
- 137. Problems the coexistence of both synthetic and analytical forms of the verb with the same grammatical
- 138. Number of Moods 2 moods – L.S.Barhudarov 3 moods – B.A.Ilyish, V.X.Zhigadlo, etc. 4 moods –
- 139. THE CATEGORY OF VOICE the verb denotes the relationship between the action expressed by the verb
- 140. The voice of the English verb is expressed by the opposition of the passive form of
- 142. Be + Participle II Passive Voice Homonymous group
- 143. Number of Voices 2 Voices - the active and the passive voice 3 Voices - the
- 144. Joos's concept of voice Primary passive Secondary passive Tertiary passive
- 145. THE ADJECTIVE. denotes a quality or state of a substance. Typical features: 1) the lexico-grammatical meaning
- 146. The Category of the Degrees of Comparison Positive Comparative Superlative
- 147. OpShACOM
- 148. Syntax. Syntax is that part of grammar which is concerned with the relationships of words in
- 149. Phrase a combination of two or more notional words or a form-word plus a notional word;
- 150. Otto Jespersen a combination of words which together form a sense unit ("puts off“); elements of
- 151. “a junction is like a picture, a nexus is like a drama or a process"
- 152. Junction the joining of the two elements is so close that they may be considered one
- 153. Nexus "In a nexus something new is added to the conception contained in the primary". nexus
- 154. Two subtypes: independent - forms a whole sentence (the door is red) dependent – “does not
- 155. Kruisinga "a syntactic group is a combination of words that forms a distinct part of a
- 156. 2 types of syntactic groups a close group - one of the members is syntactically the
- 157. Leonard Bloomfield a phrase is "a free form which consists of two or more lesser free
- 158. Two kinds of phrases: endocentric - "character-substance construction" - the phrase belongs to the same form-class
- 159. Endocentric word combinations in which at least one of the constituents has a function coinciding with
- 160. Exocentric phrase appears in a different syntactic position than any of its constituents "John ran” is
- 161. Henry Sweet rejects phrase altogether as a grammatical term. A word-group is defined as a combination
- 162. Harold Whitehall classifies phrases ("word-groups" in his terminology) according to their function and their structure. He
- 164. The tail-head constructions two subtypes: (1) those with a noun head preceded by one, two or
- 165. (2) those with a verb head proceeded by one or more specialized modifiers (verbal auxiliaries) with
- 166. Non-headed word-group 1 - is always a prepositional phrase. For instance, a book of poems, this
- 167. The Sentence a sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and
- 168. The main requirements for a definition it must state the relation of the sentence, a unit
- 169. One of the most important features of the sentence that distinguishes it from any combination of
- 170. An important difference: the former does not show whether the action denoted by the verb is
- 171. Another most important feature of the sentence which distinguishes it from a phrase is intonation. As
- 172. Classification of Sentences according to the purpose of the utterance, and according to structure.
- 173. Ch.C. Fries I. Communicative utterances. 1. A. Greetings. B. Calls. C. Questions. 2. requests or commands.
- 174. Classification of Sentences according to the Purpose of the Utterance E. Kruisinga: declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, optative,
- 175. Interrogative Sentences P.Roberts "An interrogative sentence is customarily defined as a sentence that asks a question.
- 176. D.L.Bolinger “Q is fundamentally an attitude which might be called 'craving' - it is an utterance
- 177. Weakly interrogative sentences Rhetorical s-es are used not to elicit information, but as a more striking
- 178. Interrogative sentences in meaning are those which ask a question and expect an answer. Interrogative sentences
- 179. Different types of interrogative sentences are characterized by different formal features.: Do you live here? (inversion
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