PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS IN ENGLISH

Phraseology as the branch of Linguistics. The problem of terminology
Definition of phraseological units. Criteria for phraseologacal units
Three approaches towards the study of phraseological units
Classification of phraseological units

Phraseology as the branch of Linguistics
appeared in the 1940s
studies phraseological units of the language

Object of Phraseology
phraseological units, their nature, the way they function in speech

Problem of terminology
set expression
idiom
set phrase
fixed word-groups
word-equivalent
phraseological unit

Problem of terminology
set phrase – implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups (I.V. Arnold)

Problem of terminology
idiom – implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units is idiomacity or lack of motivation (English and American linguists)

Problem of terminology
word-equivalent – stresses semantic and functional inseparability of certain word-groups, their aptness to function in speech as single words (A.I.Smirnitstky)

Problem of terminology
phraseological unit – the most acceptable by Russian linguists
phraseological units
are not always stable (like set expressions)
not always equivalent to one word (like word-equivalents)
not always idiomatic (like idioms), may be only partially motivated

Phraseological Units
non-motivated word-groups
cannot be freely made up in speech
reproduced as ready-made units structurally stable
possess stability of lexical components
reproduced as single unchangeable collocations

Phraseological Units
e.g. red (blue, white, etc) flower
BUT red tape ≠ blue tape
red flower – red flowers
BUT red tape ≠ red tapes

Phraseological Units
Denotational meaning belongs to a whole phrase as a single inseparable unit
e.g. apple sauce - nonsense
Connotational meaning belongs to the whole word-group
e.g. old boy

Phraseological Unit
a stable word-group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning (A.V. Koonin)

Criteria to distinguish free-word groups from phraseological units
semantic criterion
structural criterion

Semantic criterion
free word-groups- each meaningful component stands for a separate concept
e.g. a red flower
phraseological units – convey a single concept
e.g. red tape

Semantic criterion
Phraseological units are characterized by different degrees of semantic change:
semantic change may affect the whole word-group (“complete transferred meaning”) e.g. to skate on thin ice (to take risks), to have one’s heart in one’s boots (to be anxious about smth.)

Semantic criterion
2. semantic change may affect only one of the components of a word-group (“partially transferred meaning”)
e.g. to fall in love, small talk, to talk shop

Structural Criterion: restriction in substitution
free word-groups – components may be changed
e.g. The cargo ship/vessel is carrying coal to Liverpool/ Manchester
phraseological units – no word can be replaced without destroying the sense
e.g. to carry coals to Newcastle

Structural Criterion: introducing additional components
free word-groups – change can be made without affecting the general meaning
e.g. The big ship is carrying a large cargo of coal to the port of Liverpool
phraseological units – no additional components can be introduced
e.g. the white elephant – NOT the big white elephant

Structural Criterion: grammatical invariability
free word-groups –
e.g. red flower – red flowers
phraseological units
e.g. to find fault with smb. NOT to find faults with smb.

Features of Phraseological Units
semantic and structural stability
idiomacity (lack of motivation)
ready-madeness
the most common structure: verb +object
formed from free word combinations

Approaches to the Study of Phraseological Units
semantic
functional
contextual

Semantic Approach
phraseological units are non-motivated (idiomacity)
phraseological units are opposed to free-word combinations which are completely motivated

Functional Approach
phraseological units are specific word-groups functioning like word-equivalents
like words they possess structural and semantic inseparability

Contextual Approach
phraseological units are used in specific contexts – non-variable, or “fixed”
non-variability is a stability of the lexical components within the semantic structure

Classifications of Phraseological Units
Classifications based on a semantic approach
semantic classification - according to the degree of motivation (V.V. Vinogradov)
structural classification – based on the ability to perform the same syntactical functions as words
structural-semantical classification by A.I. Smirnitsky

Classifications of Phraseological Units
2. Classification based on a functional approach
structural-semantic classification (A.V. Koonin)
3. Classification based on a contexual approach
classification by N.N. Amosova

V.V. Vinogradov’s Classification
phraseological combinations (фразеологические сочетания) – word-groups with partially changed meaning
e.g. to be good at smth., to have a bite, bosom friends
phraseological unities (фразеологические единства) – word-groups with completely changed meaning, the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts, but deducible as it is based on metaphor

V.V. Vinogradov’s Classification
phraseological unities (фразеологические единства) – word-groups with completely changed meaning, the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts, but deducible as it is based on metaphor

V.V. Vinogradov’s Classification
phraseological unities
e.g. to lock the stable door after the horse is stolen (“to take precautions too late”),
a fish out of water (‘a person situated uncomfortably outside its usual environment’)
phraseological fusions (фразеологические сращения) – word-groups with completely changed meaning, their meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent parts

V.V. Vinogradov’s Classification
phraseological fusions (фразеологические сращения) – word-groups with completely changed meaning, their meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent parts

V.V. Vinogradov’s Classification
phraseological fusions
e.g. at sixes and sevens (‘in confusion or in disagreement’)
to set one’s cap at smb. (‘to try and attract smb.)

R.S.Ginzburg’s Classification
phraseological fusions – completely non-motivated word-groups, characterized by the complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure
e.g. to kick the bucket, red tape

R.S.Ginzburg’s Classification
phraseological unities – partially non-motivated, the meaning is perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the unit, characterized by high degree of stability of the lexical components
e.g. to show one’s teeth, to wash one’s dirty linen in the public

R.S.Ginzburg’s Classification
phraseological collocations – motivated word-groups, have specific lexical valency which results in their stability
e.g. to take a liking/ fancy, to bear a grudge/ malice

Structural Classification
verbal (verb equivalent)
e.g. to catch at a straw
substantive (noun equivalent)
e.g. dog’s life, white elephant
adjectival (adjective equivalent)
e.g. safe and sound
adverbial (adverb equivalent)
e.g. in the twinkle of an eye
interjectional
e.g. goodness gracious! Dear me!

Structural Classification
adverbial (adverb equivalent)
e.g. in the twinkle of an eye
interjectional
e.g. goodness gracious! Dear me!

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky
tried to combine structural and semantic principles
compared phraseological units with words

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky
one-summit (one-top) units – have one meaningful constituent (compared with affixed words)
verbal-adverbial units – equivalent to verbs in which grammatical and semantic centers coincide in the first component
e.g. to back up – поддерживать
to nose out - разузнавать

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky
2. units equivalent to verbs in which semantic centre is in the second element and grammatical centre is in the first element
e.g. to be tired

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky
3. prepositional-nominal units – equivalent to unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs. Semantic center is in the nominal constituent, there is no grammatical center
e.g. in the course of – during, o the nose - exactly

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky
two-summit (two-top) units - have two or more meaningful constituents (compared with compound words)
attributive-nominal units - equivalent to nouns
e.g. millstone round one’s neck – камень на шее
high road - шоссе

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky
2. verbal-nominal units – equivalent to verbs
e.g. to read between the lines – понимать скрытый смысл
to speak BBC - говорить на правильном английском языке

Classification by A.I. Smirnitsky
3. phraseological repetitions – equivalents of adverbs or adjectives, components are joined by a conjunction
e.g. back and forth – взад и вперед
ups and downs – взлеты и падения
multi-summit units
e.g. to be a shadow of one’s own self – быть тенью самого себя

A.V. Koonin’s Classification
based on structural-semantic principle
based on the functions units fulfil in speech

A.V. Koonin’s Classification according to the function in communication
1. nominative
e.g. a bull in a china shop
2. interjectional
e.g. a pretty kettle of fish!

A.V. Koonin’s Classification according to the function in communication
3. nominative-communicative – verbal word-groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice
e.g. to break the ice – the ice is broken
4. communicative – proverbs and sayings
e.g. spare a rod and spoil a child - пожалеешь розгу, испортишь ребенка; баловством портить ребенка

A.V. Koonin’s Classification according to the structure
changeable/ unchangeable
may have synonyms
e.g. to lift a finger – not to raise a finger
2. with a variable pronoun
e.g. to pull one’s leg
3. with both types of variability
e.g. to give smb a piece/ a bit of one’s mind

Classification by N.N. Amosova
phraseological units are units of a fixed context
fixed context – specific and unchanging sequence of lexical components and specific relations between them

Classification by N.N. Amosova
phrasemes – always binory, one component has a phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as a determining context
e.g. small talk, small hours

Classification by N.N. Amosova
idioms – the new meaning is crated by the whole, every element may have its original meaning weakened or completely lost
e.g. in the nick of the time – ‘at the exact moment’
movable (changeable)/immovable
e.g. apple sauce/ the apple of one’s eye

Proverbs (пословица)
sum up the collective wisdom of the community, a popular truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way
are metaphorical
they moralize
e.g. Hell is paved with good intentions

Proverbs
they admonish
e.g. If you sing before breakfast, you will cry before night
they criticize
e.g. Everyone calls his own geese swans
they give advice
e.g. Don’t judge a tree by its bark

Proverbs
lexical components are stable
meaning is figurative
are ready-made units
are easily transformed into phraseological units
e.g. don’t cast pearls before swine – to cast pearls before swine

Sayings (поговорка)
are non-metaphorical, not figurative
grammatically they are finished sentences
e.g. Where there is a way, there is a will