English Vocabulary and a Guide to Its Learning

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

Literature:
Л.М. Лещёва
English Vocabulary and a Guide to Its Learning.
Мн.: Акад.упр. при Президенте Рб. – 2009.– 99 с.

Academy of Public Administration
under the Aegis of the President of the Republic of Belarus
Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

acquisition of a mother/native language/tongue (LI)
the Imitation Hypothesis
the Innateness Hypothesis
the Critical Age Hypothesis
bilingual
Learning (acquiring) a second language (LII) -- in natural environment
Learning a foreign language (FL) -- in artificial environment

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

Principles of teaching an adult a foreign language
The process of teaching a foreign language for an adult should be addressed in a different way than that for a young child.
Their teaching should:
be meaningful and
should take into account their future needs.
Why, When, How, Where, Who, and What Principles

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

Summary
Adults learn foreign languages in a different way than children do (1. they learn a foreign language on the basis of their mother tongue, 2. they need a complete understanding of a language phenomenon before they memorize it; etc.).
There is no universal method of teaching/learning a foreign language that fits all people and all needs.
Vocabulary is the most complex component of the language and we retain the ability to learn words with little teaching through all our life.

All living beings categorize, i.e., classify information into categories with prototypes as their core.
Human beings in addition name, or lexicalize categories.
We lexicalize only important categories to survive, to communicate, to make a further research.
The most important lexicalized (named) categories have several names (synonyms).
They also may have a more detailed lexical subdivision into lexicalized subcategories (e.g., camels for Arabs or snow for Eskimos).

Factors contributing to
cross-language vocabulary differences:
NB!
1. Language communities choose different concepts
for naming
examples
(cf.: a knuckle, a caboose, rewarding, challenging and demanding in English and the lack of their lexical equivalents in Russian, and vice versa: сходить в баню, попариться веником, собрать сыроежек, малосольные огурцы)

Factors contributing to
cross-language vocabulary differences:
NB!
2. The boundaries of categories and their prototypes are subjective and arbitrary
Examples:
arbitrariness of categorization, i.e. division of semantic space by different language communities into a different number of categories (cf.: пальцы vs. fingers, thumbs and toes) and their prototypes (cf.: house vs. дом);

2. UNIVERSAL WAYS OF NAMING

2. UNIVERSAL WAYS OF NAMING
meerkat [Origin: early 18th cent.: from South African Dutch, from Dutch, 'long-tailed monkey', apparently from meer 'sea' + kat 'cat', but perhaps originally an alteration of an oriental word; compare with Hindi markaṭ 'ape‘]
suricate [Origin: late 18th cent.: via French from a local African word ]

суриката

2. UNIVERSAL WAYS OF NAMING

2. UNIVERSAL WAYS OF NAMING

2. UNIVERSAL WAYS OF NAMING

Factors contributing to
cross-language vocabulary differences
3. Differences in the way of naming
foot – подножие; humming-bird – колибри; computer – компьютер;
аdaptation – приспособление, адаптация;
afford – быть в состоянии позволить себе

3. Motivation and Demotivation of Names
Motivation:
The form and meaning of one name may give incentive to creation of another name:
roam – roaming;
cat – bearcat -- панда;
fat cat (богач, денежный мешок)
catfish – 1) сом 2) зубатка 3) каракатица; головоногий моллюск
chicken 1) a young domestic foul
2) the flesh of such a bird used for food
3) any of various similar birds, such as a prairie chicken ‘луговой тетерев’
4) slang a cowardly person
5) slang a young inexperienced person

The relation of a name in meaning and / or form to another more simple name is called motivation, and the name thus related to another more simple name is called motivated name
prairie dog – луговая собачка
Motivation of a name helps to ‘visualize’ and better understand its meaning, and finally to remember the name better.
tensometer - тензометр;

Demotivation:
blackboard, cupboard;
cranberry; breakfast; pocket; hamlet
book [Old English bōc ; related to Old Norse bōk , Old High German buoh book , Gothic bōka letter ; see BEECH (the bark of which was used as a writing surface)];
paper [from L papyrus]
afford [origin: late Old English geforthian, from ge- (prefix implying completeness) + forthian "to further", from forth . The original sense was "promote, perform, accomplish", later "manage, be in a position to do“]

Motivation and Demotivation of Names
Folk motivation:
copper ‘policeman’ from cop ‘arrest, catch’ [fr,L capere] not from copper ‘медь’;
the Canary Islands means in L Insularia Canaria ’the island of dogs’;
gooseberry [L. Grossularia]

Factors contributing to
cross-language vocabulary differences
4. Motivation
(public administrator vs. специалист в области государственного управления;
public administration
vs. государственное управление
thunder storm vs. гроза;
Ferris wheel vs. колесо обозрения;
lightning-rod vs. громоотвод)

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

Map Gallia Tribes Towns

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages
Celtic Peoples

Celtic dagger found in Britain.

Nude Celt warrior

The Dying Gaul, a Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic, a Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BC Capitoline Museums, Rome

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages

Roman Empire

Institute of Managerial Personnel, Chair of Foreign Languages
Roman Roads in Britain

Hadrians Wall

Boudica
(d. AD 60 or 61)

The end of the Roman rule
An appeal for help by the British communities against the barbarians attacks was rejected by the Emperor Honorius in 410.
The pagan Saxons were invited by VortigernThe pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts and Irish

Vortigern

Saxon Expansion

Saxon Expansion

King Arthur
led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the early 6th century.

Saxon Expansion

The Danish invasion
(8th-11th centuries)

Danelaw

DOMINIONS OF CNUT

Old Norse Words
both, call, die, egg, fellow, flat, fog, gap, get, give, happy, happen, husband, ill, knife, law, leg, loan, low, odd, reindeer, sale, take, they, their, them, tidings, ugly, want, weak, window, wrong, etc.
Some of them are still easy to recognize as they begin with sk-: ski, skin, sky, skill, skirt, scrub, etc.
At least 1,400 localities in England have Scandinavian names (names with elements -beck ‘brook’, -by ‘village’, toft ‘a site for a dwelling’: Askby, Selby,Westby, Brimtoft, Nortoft, etc.).

King Edward the Confessor, died on on 5 January 1066.

William I
(the Conqueror)
Hastings 1066

Possessions of
William I

.
French borrowings
government, social and military order: parliament, government, baron, noble, servant, messenger, royal, state, court, battle, army, soldier, navy, enemy, arrest, spy, peace, judge, justice, verdict, prison
market, demand, false, etc.
cooking terms : sauce, boil, fry, roast, toast, pastry, soup, jelly, beef, etc.
arts, fashion : art, painting, poet, chamber, labour, mansion, diamond, salon, mirror, scent, jewel, robe, coat, collar, curtain, etc.
inner parts of the body: vein, nerve, stomach, artery, tendon
But the outward parts of the body (with an exception of face), and most of the better known inner organs were untouched by the Norman French (arm, hand, finger, nose, eye, skin, heart, brain, lung, kidney, liver, bone)

About 85% of the Anglo-Saxon words are no longer in use.
About 50,000 Anglo-Saxon words still remain in English today.
Anglo-Saxon words are:
communicatively important and very frequently used,
mostly monosyllabic in character,
highly polysemantic.
They:
have a great word-building potential,
enter a great number of set-expressions, proverbs and sayings.

500 etymological doublets
canal [L] — channel [Fr],
liquor [L] — liqueur [Fr],
major [L] — mayor [Fr]
senior [L] – sir [Fr]
discrete [L] – discreet [Fr]
disk [L] – dish [L]
circle [L fr Gk] – cycle [L fr Gk]
hostel, hospital, hospice
shirt [OE] — skirt [Sc]
shift [OE] – skip [Sc]

‘a translator’s false friends’
sympathy is not симпатия
romance is not романс
solid is not солидный
angina is not ангина
Caucasian is not only кавказский
invalid is not a full equivalent to инвалид
public is not only публичный
policy is not only политика
conductor is not only кондуктор
cream is not only крем

Lexical-semantic naming is a secondary use of the word for naming a related category.
Lexical-semantic naming is based on close association of two or more concepts, and one of them gives its name to the other:
He is a fox;
I like chicken.

The associations based on similarity (сходство) are called metaphoric:
face of a person and face of a clock;
neck of a body and neck of a bottle
He is a shark;
This vehicle is a caterpillar;
The mouth of a river;
The associations based on contiguity (смежность) create a metonymic:
he ate three plates;
the bench for ‘judiciary’;
the crown for ‘the monarch’

The sources for lexical-semantic naming,
or for metaphor and metonymy are the most well-known:
Objects: body parts
animals,
plants,
instruments,
сlothes
Qualities: colour,
shape,
size,
tеmperature
Actions, Events or States:
movement,
existence,
possession

Lexical-semantic naming in English is used to give:
in nouns:
figurative (usually derogatory) names mainly to a person (tail ‘one (as a detective) who follows or keeps watch on someone’; monkey ‘(fig.) a person resembling a monkey; a ludicrous figure; DUPE’; etc.). or thing;
direct names to the following concepts that are similar to the mentioned above categories in the form or functions, e.g.:
Objects:
parts of some structure (hand ‘an indicator on a dial’; head ‘the striking part of a weapon’, leg ‘a pole or a bar serving as a support’; foot ‘a piece of a sawing machine that presses the cloth’);
geographical places and objects of the Universe (mouth ‘the place where a stream enters a larger body of water’),
Abstract concepts:
different abstract concepts (lid ‘RESTRAIN, CURB’; net ‘an entrapping situation’; bone ‘ESSENCE’; etc.);
results of actions and events ‘sleep; marital relationship’; chair ‘employment, a position of employment’; etc.),

SO: Сorrelated names may have:
a) different semantic boundaries (blue – голубой, синий);
b) a different way of naming (‘the lower part of the mountain’– is foot in English (semantic derivation) and подножие in Russian (morphological derivation);
c) a different motivating feature (ушко иголки — eye of a needle; сумка кенгуру — a kangaroo poach; шумы в сердце — heart murmurs);
d) different semantic structures (polysemy) (cf.: foot and ступня).

THE WORDS:
Environment, government, public, policy (-ies), bureaucracy (-ies), collaborate, legal, resist, security, execute, promote, abuse, value, case, comparative, scholar, manage, rule, etc.
ARE MORE POLYSEMANTIC AND HAVE DIFFERENT SEMANTIC STRUCTURES COMPARED WITH CORRELATED RUSSIAN WORDS .
IN TEXTS ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THEY ARE OFTEN USED IN THEIR SECONDARY MEANINGS THAT CORRELATED RUSSIAN WORDS DO NOT HAVE:
government
1) управление
2) система управления
3) государство
4) правительство

Homonymy
bay I ‘a deep howl or growl’ [from Old French abaiier ‘to bark’, of imitative origin];
bay II ‘sweet bay a small evergreen Mediterranean laurel, Laurus nobilis, with glossy aromatic leaves, used for flavouring in cooking’ [from Old French baie ‘laurel berry’, from Latin bāca ‘berry’];
bay III ‘1) a) a moderate reddish-brown colour 2) an animal of this colour, esp. a horse’

Classification of homonyms
perfect homonyms: bank I ‘shore’ [Sc.] and bank II ‘financial institution’ [It];
homophones: tail and tale; buoy and boy;
homographs (live [liv] and live [laiv], lead [li:d] and lead [led], minute ['minit] and minute [mai'nju:t].

Classification of homonyms
lexical homonyms: seal (n) ‘a sea animal’; seal (n) ‘design on a piece of paper, stamp’);
grammatical homonyms: seals – pl. of ‘sea animal’ and seal’s – sing. Possessive Case of ‘sea animal’);
lexical-grammatical homonyms: seal (n) – ‘a sea animal’, and seal (v) – ‘to close tightly’; court (n) and caught (v); sea (n) and see (v), etc.).

Tongue twisters
Of all the saws I ever saw, I never saw a saw saw like that saw saws.
A canner exceedingly canny
One morning remarked to his granny:
“A canner can can
Any thing that he can
But a canner can’t can a can, can he?”

under-: underling
over-: overestimate, overwhelm
out-: outstretch
for-: foresee
fore-: foreman un-: unaware, unable, unpredictable, unassembled, unemployed

ab-:abuse, abusive,
dis-: discharge, dismiss, discretionary
de-: decentralization
e-: evaluate
en-: encourage
ex-: exclude, expire,
in/l/m/r-: incompetence, inaudible, incoherent, immortal, impossible, inadequate
inter-: interchangeable, inter-organizational,
macro-: macro-administration
micro-: micro-administration
multi-: multi-level
non-: non-rational, non-professional, non-decision,
co-: colleague, cooperation,
pre-:pre-war
post-: post-war,
re-: reconsider, reassign, review
non-: non-rational
trans-: transactional, transformational,
sub-: subordinate
super-: supervision, supervisor,

Classification of suffixes
derivational, or word-building (glorify) /non-derivational, or stem-building incredible)
native (-er, -ful, -less, -like, -y, -ling, -ness, -ish, -en, -some, -ed ) /borrowed (-able/-ible, -ist, -ism, -ant/-ent, -ee, -ette, -ine, -ise, -ive, -ancy/-ency, etc.);
noun-forming DENOTING agent, feminine agent, endearment, abstract quality, result (worker, baroness, horsy, darkness);
adjective-forming DENOTING similarity, ability, deprivation, possession, relatedness (bluish, eatable, legless, wonderful, Japanese);
verb-forming DENOTING the act of initiating (originate), the act towards the quality (equalize, formalize);
adverb-forming (domestically).

-ant: participant,
-age: patronage,
-acy: bureaucracy, autocracy,
-ance/-ence; experience, co circumstance, convergence, dependence, competence, performance,
-ary/ory: functionary, advisory
-ee: employee, appointee,
-ence: competence
-er/or: officer, leader, manager, administrator, translator, emperor, indicator, supervisor,
-ism: favoritism, centralism,
-ity: authority, activity, accountability, creativity, seniority, accountability, responsibility, individuality, personality, mobility, productivity, possibility, predictability, rationality
-ling: underling
-ment: enforcement, government, parliament, department, preferment, arrangement, assignment, involvement , judgment, employment, appointment, recruitment, requirement, achievement, statement, arrangement, involvement, Implement
-ness: appropriateness, homelessness, weakness, appropriateness
-ship: leadership, relationship,
-tion/-ion: administration, qualification, organization, institution, implementation, regulation, promotion, examination, application, expectation, situation, certification, information, classification, institution, selection, salvation , definition,, information, education, privatization, protection, decision, option,
-ure: legislature, procedure,
-y: anarchy, bureaucracy, autonomy, facility,
-able: considerable, acceptable,
-al: personal, institutional, national, professional, promotional, imperial, governmental, visual, hierarchical, doctoral, fundamental, conceptual, institutional, casual, formal, official, experimental, rational, continental
-ate: desperate,
-en
-ful: plentiful,
-ic: bureaucratic, autocratic, strategic,
-ive: active, administrative, authoritative, comparative, legislative, objective, representative, perspective
-ish
-less: homeless,
-like
-ous: religious, dangerous, indigenous, simultaneous,
-y
-some
-ise/-ize: authorize, modernize, organize, regularize, computerize, formalize, recognize, privatize,
-fy: qualify, simplify,

V as N: search, reward, blame, need, lack, abuse, neglect, lead, rule, treat, recruit, affect, merit, act, guide, control, cost
N as V: to benefit, to result, to effect, to profit, to site, to judge, to sponsor, to face, to influence , to credit , to report,

The second base is semantically more important, cf.:
ring finger and finger-ring
piano-player and player piano
armchair and chair-arm

Translate:
телефон-автомат
концлагерь
руководство
смехотворный
благотворительность
студент-второкурсник
паровоз

Explain the difference in your translation:
телефон-автомат – 1) (аппарат) public telephone 2) (будка) telephone box, (public) call box ; (public) telephone booth [-ð]
концлагерь – concentration camp
руководство –leadership; a guide; a handbook
смехотворный – ridiculous
благотворительность – charity
студент-второкурсник – second-year student; sophomore [from Greek "sophos", meaning "wise", and "moros" meaning "foolish“]
паровоз – steam engine/locomotive

Translate:
role-type,
policy-making,
street-level,
guideline,
background,
framework,
desktop administrator

Explain the difficulties in translation:
role-type
policy-making
street-level
guideline
background
framework
desktop administrator
тип выполняемой роли в организации
разработка / выработка стратегического / политического курса
передовая линия непосредственной работы с клиентами
1) директива, руководящее указание 2) общий курс, направление, генеральная линия
задний план, фон
) остов, корпус, каркас framework of the old arm-chair — каркас старого кресла Syn: frame 1., skeleton 2) структура, строение framework of society — общественный строй Syn: structure 3) система взглядов, точка отсчёта, рамки within the framework of smth. — в рамках, в пределах чего-л. conceptual framework — концептуальная основа
роль менеджера среднего звена

b) Acronymy
Abbreviation (Initislism): SMSA, SMT
SMS for ‘short messages service’, DVD for ‘digital video disk’, CD-ROM ‘Compact Disk Read Only Memory’, hi-fi (short for ‘HIgh Fidelity’), UNO for ‘United Nations Organization, VIP for ‘Very Important Person’, jeep for ‘General Purpose vehicle’, laser for ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation’, V-day for ‘Victory day’, Pakistan (1933) (Punjab, Afghan Border States, Kashmir, Sind and the end of the name of BaluchisTAN);
SMART (Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology), MAESTRO, WASP, the Professional and Administrative Career Examination (PACE) , The National Association of Schools of Public Administration (NASPA);
oink (One Income No Kids), dinky (Dual Income No Kids).

4. The extension of proper names
champagne, kleenex, coffee, nicotine, magnolia, sandwich, hooligan
5. Analogical word-formation
hamburger — cheeseburger — fishburger;
England — Disneyland — acqualand;
Watergate — Irangate — zippergate — sexgate
6. Adjectivization
-ed: merit-oriented, skilled, united, organized, elected
7. Nominalization
the recruiting, the terminating
8. Word manufacturing
Gas, Kodak

Word Groups in Taxonomies

Word Groups as Clichés and Set-expressions
Clichés
kind to people, wrong number, commit a suicide
ladies and gentlemen, Good morning!
Set-expressions
on the one hand, hand in hand, by the way, so far so good, How do you do?

Word Groups as Idioms
to break the ice
to breath one’s last
Hobson’s choice
In cold blood
An old bird is not to be caught with chaff.
A cheerful wife is the joy of life.
A hungry man is an angry man.
He is the richest that has fewest wants.
If a man deceived me once, shame on him; if twice, shame on me.

Multi-word Latin and French set expressions
alter ego ‘second self’; id est (i.e.)‘ that is’; vice versa ‘with the order changed’; Bon appetit! ‘enjoy your meal’.
They are mostly abbreviations and their reading may follow different patterns:
as full Latin expression. Thus, etc. et cetera (‘and the others’, ‘and other things’, ‘and the rest’);
as letters of the English alphabet: a.m. – [anter meridiem] ‘before midday’; p.m. [post meridiem] ‘after midday’] or A.D. [anno Domini] ‘in the year of the Lord’.
as English expressions: e.g. is usually read as ‘for example’, ‘for instance’ [exempli gratia] ;
et al. is read as ‘and others’ [et alia] ;
R.I.P. is read as ‘rest in peace’ [requiescat in pace] – a short prayer for a dead person.

Free Collocations
украшать салат/… …
отличное настроение/… …
любимая девушка/… …
poor student/… …
advanced student/… …
full-time student/… …

Summary: General characteristics of the English vocabulary
Native words make up about 30% of the vocabulary but communicatively they are most important. Most of them are monomorphic and monosyllable.
Most of the borrowed words are of Romance origin, many of them are assimilated.
Borrowings contribute to abundance of synonyms, homonyms, ‘interpreter’s false friends’, and etymological doublets in English.
Most English words are polysemantic.
The major ways of morphological derivation in English are affixation, conversion, and composition.
Most affixes in English are borrowed, and they mostly combine with borrowed bases. The number of active derivational affixes is not great.
Conversion is mostly characteristic of nouns that derive new verbs and verbs that derive new nouns.
Most English compounds do not have linking elements and may be spelled differently. Phonetically they are distinguished by a certain stress-pattern, the second element is semantically dominant.
There are many words derived by minor ways of word-formation.
There are many variants in the English vocabulary.

Some lexical factors that complicate comprehension, remembering, and retrieving words in Public Administration texts:
The English words are:
1) mainly French borrowings: coup-d’etat; jeopardize, employee, prior, servility, routine,
2) Latin borrowings with low frequency of usage: indolent, insolent, insulate;
3) misleading due to their formal similarity with Russian words: public, legal, recruit, terminate;
4) not registered in dictionaries: policy entrepreneurs;
5) have no lexical equivalent in Russian: merit systems, tenure (постоянная должность, бессрочный контракт.Заключается университетом с профессором), public administration roles, challenge;
6) polysemantic and not clearly identified from the text: public (общественный, публичный, государственный), government (правительство, управление)，desk (рабочий стол, отдел);
7) combined in text with different words: the day-to-day working, effective and efficient, the grossly incompetent, to guide policy intentions into policy actions

What’s in a name?
часы (час in Russian means ‘time’)
clock [Middle Dutch fr L ‘bell’] refers to a timepiece, usually free-standing, hanging, or built into a tower,
watch converted from verb to watch if the timepiece is portable and worn strapped to the wrist.

What’s in a name?
Russ. опенок from пень English: ?
опенок осенний -- honey agaric
(agaric ‘пластинчатый гриб’)
опенок летний -- a prickly cup
чертополох -- thistle

shake your hands!

Пожмите руку друг другу!

A name and the lexicon
a bicycle
unicycle, monocycle, tricycle, quadrocycle, motorcycle, to cycle, to bicycle, to tricycle, to monocycle, to motorcycle, cycling, cyclic, cyclical, cyclist, bicyclist, motorcyclist, etc.
велосипед
одноколесный or трехколесный велосипед
велосипедист (ка), велосипедный
велоспорт, велотрек, велорикша, велопробег

ехать на велосипеде/ машине
ride a bicycle / drive a car
ride meant ‘to sit and travel on the back of animal, usually while controlling its motion’
he rides a BICYCLE/ TRICYCLE/ MOTORCYCLE/ HORSE.
drive meant ‘to herd (i.e., ‘to compel, to punch’) draught animal in a particular direction’
he drives a CAR/ TRACTOR/ BUS/ TRACK
Driver – or bus operator?

‘the front of the head from the forehead to the lower jaw’;
face
‘the upper marked surface of a clock or watch’
циферблат
‘the expression of the countenance; look’;
гримаса
‘the main side of a building.’
фасад
…..
‘the main side of an object, etc’
лицевая часть, лицо
лицо
‘главная сторона предмета’
face
‘личность, особа’
person
Должностное лицо. Главное лицо. Официальное лицо. Сопровождающие лица. Историческое лицо. И вот здесь в дело вмешалось новое действующее лицо
‘грамматическая категория’
person

A name and the lexicon
(conclusion)
Different in character, names weave finally a unique lexical canvas of the language, determine its highly specific and individual lexical system and structure.
Learning a word is learning its place in the vocabulary system

Lecture 7.
Building a Better Vocabulary
Plan
The individual vocabulary.
Major strategies in learning English vocabulary.
A case study.
Dictionaries of the English languages.

Active/passive vocabulary:
Even the child having a normal use vocabulary of 1,000 words would “know” 10,000.
Some people use only 500-1,000 words in everyday conversations.
People judge us, our ideas and our intellectual abilities by the words we use.
If there is a million of words in English, an educated adult should use in speech about 10,000 words.
W. Shakespeare used about 25,000 words.

Different types of the word relations:
Letter relations (apple, apricot)
Phonetic relations (fanatic – phonetic; bank – bank)
Morphological relations (friend – friendly – unfriendly)
Semantic relations with other words:
hierarchical relations (bulldog – dog – animal)
with the words of the same lexical-semantic group (administrator’s role-types: political executive, desktop administrator, professional, street-level bureaucrat, entrepreneurs);
synonyms (probation – trial – test; indolent – lazy, slothful; jeopardy – peril, risk, endangerment; insolent - proud, haughty, arrogant);
antonyms (indolent – active, busy, fully engaged; love – hate);
part-whole relations (dog – tail)
metaphorical relations (neck of a bottle; time is money; argument is war; public administrators are translators and tailors of government or mere cogs in the machinery of government/in the giant wheel)
metonymical relations (apple – tree)
associative relations (bureaucracy – red-tape, corruption; cf.: лошадь – овес)
5. syntactic relations, or usage (collocations) (to listen to petitions, a nice dog; a dog bites)

Learning vocabulary is learning each individual word.
Learning a word is learning a wealth of specific information.
Learning this specific information about a word requires a certain guide to understand and remember its meaning, usage, and form.

III. Dictionaries of English
(1) Latin and French Glossaries

Learning vocabulary is learning:
- each individual word (sound/ graphic/ grammar/ form; translation; exact meaning; usage);
a vocabulary structure and system;
a wealth of cultural information.
Learning vocabulary requires a certain guide to understand it and remember.