General Livestock Feeding

International Feed Classes
There are five main classes of feeds, based on composition and use.

Feed Classifications
Roughages (Forages)
Concentrates
- Energy Concentrates
- Protein Concentrates
Minerals
Vitamins
Feed Additives

1. Roughages
Bulky feeds low in weight per unit
Contain more than 19% crude fiber in DM
Low in Energy
Natural feeds of ruminants
Generally low in digestibility
High in Ca, K, and trace minerals
Higher in fat-soluble vitamins
Protein varies (from 3% to 22-23% CP)

Roughages
Pastures
Hay
varies more than any other feed
harvest at optimum time
if cured properly, contain 20% moisture or less
Crop Residues
left in field after harvest
straw, corn stalks, chaff etc

Roughages
Silage = fermented forage plants
mostly corn or sorghum
2 1/2 to 3 kg silage replaces 1 kg hay due to lower dry matter content of silage
Haylage = low moisture silage
grass or legume wilted to 40-60% moisture before ensiling
more dry matter & feed value

Roughage
Green Chop (soilage)
fresh plants cut and chopped in the field, transported and fed to animals in confinement
50% more feed value
extra equipment required
harvest every day

Roughage
Other Roughages
sawdust
beet tops
root crops
oat hulls
newspapers

Forages as Energy Sources
Forages (roughages) can supply some of the energy needs in the livestock ration, although they are not as concentrated source of energy as the grains.
Value of forages for livestock feed is highly dependent on time of harvesting.
As forage plants mature, the crude fiber content (cellulose and lignin) increases, which lowers the digestibility of the feed.
When forages are harvested as silage, more of the nutritional value of the plant is preserved.

Corn Silage
Corn silage, which contains almost 50% grain on a dry matter basis, is an excellent energy source for certain classes of livestock.
Sorghum and small grain silages are lower in energy content than corn silage.

Straws
Oat, barley and wheat straws are low in energy value and are not used as a major source of energy.
It may be used if additional fiber is needed in the ration.

Pastures
Properly managed pastures can be a good source of nutrients.
Rotating and fertilizing pastures to get the best yield and nutritional value.
Quality of pasture must be closely watched and supplemented with good quality stored forages when necessary.

2. Concentrates
Feeds high in energy an low in fiber (under 19%)
Highly palatable and eaten rapidly
Low volume per unit of weight (high specific gravity)

Energy Concentrates
A major source of energy nutrients is the cereal grains and grain byproduct.
These feeds are called energy concentrates or basal feeds when their crude protein is less than 18% in DM.

Corn (Maize)
One of the highest energy feeds available.
The most widely grown and used feed grain crop.
It is an economical and superior source of energy.
Consideration must be given to amount to feed, frequency and combinations with other feeds, in order to get the most efficient use of this high energy feed source without causing digestive problems.

Corn & Cob Meal
Contains about 10% less energy than shelled corn because of the fiber content in the cob.
All species can utilize it, however, when feed to growing-fattening hogs because they do not have the ability to digest and use much of the cob content.

Oats
About 85% of the energy of corn.
Higher in crude protein than corn and add fiber and bulk to the ration.
Help the rumen maintain bacterial and protozoa function.
Not a good fattening feed but are used extensively in rations for horses, young growing stock, breeding animals.
Usually fed rolled or ground.

Barley
Almost equal to corn in energy value, but lies between corn and oats in fiber content.
Used in a ration in a manner similar to oats.
Barley may replace up to 50 % of the corn in rations for fattening animals.
To improve palatability it is often steam rolled

Wheat
High in both energy and protein.
Wheat is similar to corn in composition and feeding value.
If and when it is used in a ration it is included at low levels in a mix with other grains because it is rapidly digested and may cause digestive disturbances.

Grain Sorghum
There are many varieties and various hybrids.
Smaller than corn and may replace up to 100% of the corn in a feedlot ration.
Generally rolled or ground when included in a ration.

Rye
Rye is usually used for bread for human consumption and has limited use as a livestock feed.
It is not as valuable as corn, whet or grain sorghum.
Ergot contaminated rye can be toxic to livestock.
The use of rye in livestock rations should be limited to no more than one-third of the ration.
It should be coarsely ground or rolled to increase palatability.

Peas
By 10% less energy value then that of corn.
Significantly higher in crude protein than corn (up to 20% CP per 1 kg).
A good source of protein and lysine .
But includes some undesirable factors, which may cause digestive disturbances .
Better to use after heat treatment (extrusion)

Sources of Energy---Fats & Oils
A byproduct of oil and packing plants, poultry processing plants.
Fats and oils in the feed reduces the dustiness of the feed.
A highly concentrated source of energy (at least 300% of corn energy value)
Increases calorie density of a ration (2,25 times energy of carbohydrates)
Often treated with antioxidants to prevent the feed from becoming rancid in storage.
Beef and dairy rations can contain up to 5% while swine rations may have up to 20%.

Sources of Energy---Molasses
By-product of sugar manufacture
Common types of molasses are cane, beet, citrus and wood.
¾ energy value of corn
Molasses is used in rations for cattle, sheep and horses but is seldom used in swine rations, because it causes scouring.
Appetizer, improves palatability, aids rumen microbial activity, reduces dust and serves as a binder when feeds are pelleted.
Molasses is usually limited to not more than 10-15% of the ration.

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Plant Origin (Oil By-Products: Meals and Cakes )
Expeller or Hydraulic Process - Crushed, Heated, Pressed, Ground = Cakes
5% residual oil remains in cake
Solvent - Cracked, Heated, Rolled, Extracted with Hexane and Flakes Toasted and Ground = Meals
1% residual oil remains in meal

Protein Concentrates
Soybean Meal
Most Widely Used
Standard for Comparison of Other Protein Sources
Very palatable and digestible

Protein Concentrates
Soybean Meal
44% CP = standard meal
soybean meal plus 5% soy hulls
used for ruminants, horses, older swine
48% CP= high protein meal
soybean meal
no soy hulls, very refined
higher protein, lysine
lower fiber
used for baby pigs and poultry

Protein Concentrates
Sunflower Meals and Cakes
Protein varies with Process Used
28, 32, 38 or 40%
Can Replace 30-50% of SBM in Swine Diets
Ruminants Can Use as a Sole Protein Supplement

Protein Concentrates
Linseed meal
Mechanically extracted
Contains residual oil
Popular among horse owners and show animal feeders because of hair coat
Peanut meal
50% CP

Protein Concentrates
Rapeseed Meal
Feeding Problems
Erucic Acid
Fed to Swine at 5% of Diet, Not Fed to Ruminants

Distiller’s Byproduct Feeds
Feeds Produced by the Fermentation of Grains (normally corn) for Alcohol Production
Generally fed wet
Concentrates Produced
Distiller’s Dried Grains - Dried Grain Fraction.
Distiller’s Dried Solubles - Condensing the Thin Stillage Fraction and Drying it.

Brewery By-Products
By-Products as a Result of the Brewing Industry
Feed Products
Brewer’s Dried Grains - Dried Residue from Malting Process.

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Animal and Marine Origin
Derived from Meat or Poultry Packing Plants, Rendering Plants, Surplus Milk or Milk By-Products, Marine Sources
Added to Improve Mixture
Rich in CP, lysine and other AA
Low in Sulfur and Tryptophan

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Tankage
By-Product from Meat Packing or Rendering
Unusable Animal Tissue (Bones, Gut, Tendons, Connective Tissue, Blood Meal)
If it Contains a Minimum 4,4% P it’s called Meat and Bone Tankage
No Hair, Horns, Manure, Gut Contents or Hide

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Blood Meal (90% CP): excellent amino acid balance
Meat Meal (50 - 60% CP)
Contains Less Gut, Tendons and Connective Tissue than Tankage
Normally no Blood Meal
If 4,4% P it’s called Meat and Bone Meal

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Poultry By-Products
Poultry By-Product Meal
Contains Heads, Feet, Intestines, Undeveloped Eggs
No Feathers

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Poultry By-Products
Feather Meal
85% CP (75% digestible protein)
No more than 3% of swine diets

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Fish Meal
Whole fish, fish cuttings; with or without oil
66% CP, 6% Ca and 3,5% P
exceptional source of essential amino acids
contains “amines” which cause fishy smell in poultry or swine fed fish meal immediately prior to harvest as well as laying hens

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Shrimp meal, crab meal, etc.
Exoskeleton contains “chitin” a cellulose-like polysaccharide that is very poorly digested
Protein content derived from meat residue

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Animal Waste
Used Primarily in Ruminant Diets
Normally Broiler Litter (31% CP, 17% CF, 15% Ash)
10-60% of the Protein Exists as NPN

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Non-protein Nitrogen products
Urea
Requires readily available carbohydrate source to provide carbon chains for microbial protein synthesis
Rapidly degraded in rumen
May require adaptation period
Maximum levels established due to toxicity problems

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Milk By-Products
Whey
Wet
By-Product of Cheese Manufacturing
Dried
11% CP, 61% Lactose

Protein Concentrates
Protein Supplements
Milk By-Products
Dried Whole Milk
Dried Skim Milk
Dried Buttermilk

Special Feeds of Animal Origin
Colostrum: first milk given by mammals after parturition
contains antibodies
within 15 min to 4 hours
surplus colostrum can be frozen for up to a year or more
can feed cow colostrum to lambs etc., but some diseases are species specific

Special Feeds of Animal Origin
Milk Replacers
can’t replace colostrum
a good replacer should contain up to 20% dried milk
fortified with vitamins, minerals & antibiotics
can be used as whole milk diet alternative in rearing programs

Feed Additives
80% of farm animals get some drug during lifetime
chemicals that regulate growth, modify rumen activity, improve feed efficiency
lower production costs
unsafe if used improperly

Feed Additives
Abortifacients = induces abortion
feedlot heifers
Antibiotics = produced by living organisms, bacteriostatic properties
growth stimulators
better feed efficiency

Antibiotics
Low levels in feeds
High (therapeutic) levels in feeds

Antioxidants
Prevent oxidative rancidity of fats
Other methods:
refrigeration
lack of light
lack of oxygen

Chemotherapeutics
Similar to antibiotics
produced chemically instead of biologically

Electrolytes
Substance when disolved in water enables solution to conduct electric current
Salts (saline)
Replenish fluids lost from:
dehydration (heat stress, birth)
diarrhea
hemorrhage
vomiting

Flavouring Agents
Increase palatability & feed intake
Many additives taste or smell bad

Hormones
Chemicals released by a specific area of the body, transported to another, to bring about a physiological response
Increase growth, milk production, meat production

Implants
Small pellets deposited under skin behind the ear
Promote growth
“Compudose”: steers any age or weight
“Finaplex”:feedlot steers
“Ralgro”:improves rate of gain
not a hormone (anabolic agent)

Ionophores
Feed additives that change the metabolism within the rumen by altering the rumen microorganisms
“Bovatec” & “Rumensin”
Lower feed intake, gain same