Saving, Investment

The Financial System
The financial system consists of the group of institutions in the economy that help to match one person’s saving with another person’s investment.
It moves the economy’s scarce resources from savers to borrowers.

FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE U.S. ECONOMY
The financial system is made up of financial institutions that coordinate the actions of savers and borrowers.
Financial institutions can be grouped into two different categories: financial markets and financial intermediaries.

FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE U.S. ECONOMY
Financial Markets
Stock Market
Bond Market
Financial Intermediaries
Banks
Mutual Funds

FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE U.S. ECONOMY
Financial markets are the institutions through which savers can directly provide funds to borrowers.
Financial intermediaries are financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowers.

Financial Markets
The Bond Market
A bond is a certificate of indebtedness that
specifies obligations of the borrower to
the holder of the bond.
Characteristics of a Bond
Term: The length of time until the bond matures.
Credit Risk: The probability that the borrower will fail to pay some of the interest or principal.
Tax Treatment: The way in which the tax laws treat the interest on the bond.
Municipal bonds are federal tax exempt.

Financial Markets
The Stock Market
Stock represents a claim to partial ownership in a firm and is therefore, a claim to the profits that the firm makes.
The sale of stock to raise money is called equity financing.
Compared to bonds, stocks offer both higher risk and potentially higher returns.
The most important stock exchanges in the United States are the New York Stock Exchange, the American Stock Exchange, and NASDAQ.

Financial Markets
The Stock Market
Most newspaper stock tables provide the following information:
Price (of a share)
Volume (number of shares sold)
Dividend (profits paid to stockholders)
Price-earnings ratio

Financial Intermediaries
Financial intermediaries are financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowers.

Financial Intermediaries
Banks
take deposits from people who want to save and use the deposits to make loans to people who want to borrow.
pay depositors interest on their deposits and charge borrowers slightly higher interest on their loans.

Financial Intermediaries
Banks
Banks help create a medium of exchange by allowing people to write checks against their deposits.
A medium of exchanges is an item that people can easily use to engage in transactions.
This facilitates the purchases of goods and services.

Financial Intermediaries
Mutual Funds
A mutual fund is an institution that sells shares to the public and uses the proceeds to buy a portfolio, of various types of stocks, bonds, or both.
They allow people with small amounts of money to easily diversify.

Financial Intermediaries
Other Financial Institutions
Credit unions
Pension funds
Insurance companies
Loan sharks

SAVING AND INVESTMENT IN THE NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTS
Recall that GDP is both total income in an economy and total expenditure on the economy’s output of goods and services:
Y = C + I + G + NX

Some Important Identities
Assume a closed economy – one that does not engage in international trade:
Y = C + I + G

Some Important Identities
Now, subtract C and G from both sides of the equation:
Y – C – G =I
The left side of the equation is the total income in the economy after paying for consumption and government purchases and is called national saving, or just saving (S).

Some Important Identities
Substituting S for Y - C - G, the equation can be written as:
S = I

Some Important Identities
National saving, or saving, is equal to:
S = I
S = Y – C – G
S = (Y – T – C) + (T – G)

The Meaning of Saving and Investment
National Saving
National saving is the total income in the economy that remains after paying for consumption and government purchases.
Private Saving
Private saving is the amount of income that households have left after paying their taxes and paying for their consumption.
Private saving = (Y – T – C)

The Meaning of Saving and Investment
Public Saving
Public saving is the amount of tax revenue that the government has left after paying for its spending.
Public saving = (T – G)

The Meaning of Saving and Investment
Surplus and Deficit
If T > G, the government runs a budget surplus because it receives more money than it spends.
The surplus of T - G represents public saving.
If G > T, the government runs a budget deficit because it spends more money than it receives in tax revenue.

The Meaning of Saving and Investment
For the economy as a whole, saving must be equal to investment.
S = I

THE MARKET FOR LOANABLE FUNDS
Financial markets coordinate the economy’s saving and investment in the market for loanable funds.

THE MARKET FOR LOANABLE FUNDS
The market for loanable funds is the market in which those who want to save supply funds and those who want to borrow to invest demand funds.

THE MARKET FOR LOANABLE FUNDS
Loanable funds refers to all income that people have chosen to save and lend out, rather than use for their own consumption.

Supply and Demand for Loanable Funds
The supply of loanable funds comes from people who have extra income they want to save and lend out.
The demand for loanable funds comes from households and firms that wish to borrow to make investments.

Supply and Demand for Loanable Funds
The interest rate is the price of the loan.
It represents the amount that borrowers pay for loans and the amount that lenders receive on their saving.
The interest rate in the market for loanable funds is the real interest rate.

Supply and Demand for Loanable Funds
Financial markets work much like other markets in the economy.
The equilibrium of the supply and demand for loanable funds determines the real interest rate.

Figure 1 The Market for Loanable Funds
Loanable Funds
(in billions of dollars)
0
Interest
Rate
Copyright©2004 South-Western

Supply and Demand for Loanable Funds
Government Policies That Affect Saving and Investment
Taxes and saving
Taxes and investment
Government budget deficits

Policy 1: Saving Incentives
Taxes on interest income substantially reduce the future payoff from current saving and, as a result, reduce the incentive to save.

Policy 1: Saving Incentives
A tax decrease increases the incentive for households to save at any given interest rate.
The supply of loanable funds curve shifts to the right.
The equilibrium interest rate decreases.
The quantity demanded for loanable funds increases.

Figure 2 An Increase in the Supply of Loanable Funds
Loanable Funds
(in billions of dollars)
0
Interest
Rate
Copyright©2004 South-Western

Policy 1: Saving Incentives
If a change in tax law encourages greater saving, the result will be lower interest rates and greater investment.

Policy 2: Investment Incentives
An investment tax credit increases the incentive to borrow.
Increases the demand for loanable funds.
Shifts the demand curve to the right.
Results in a higher interest rate and a greater quantity saved.

Policy 2: Investment Incentives
If a change in tax laws encourages greater investment, the result will be higher interest rates and greater saving.

Figure 3 An Increase in the Demand for Loanable Funds
Loanable Funds
(in billions of dollars)
0
Interest
Rate
Copyright©2004 South-Western

Policy 3: Government Budget Deficits and Surpluses
When the government spends more than it receives in tax revenues, the short fall is called the budget deficit.
The accumulation of past budget deficits is called the government debt.

Policy 3: Government Budget Deficits and Surpluses
Government borrowing to finance its budget deficit reduces the supply of loanable funds available to finance investment by households and firms.
This fall in investment is referred to as crowding out.
The deficit borrowing crowds out private borrowers who are trying to finance investments.

Policy 3: Government Budget Deficits and Surpluses
A budget deficit decreases the supply of loanable funds.
Shifts the supply curve to the left.
Increases the equilibrium interest rate.
Reduces the equilibrium quantity of loanable funds.

Figure 4: The Effect of a Government Budget Deficit
Loanable Funds
(in billions of dollars)
0
Interest
Rate
Copyright©2004 South-Western

Policy 3: Government Budget Deficits and Surpluses
When government reduces national saving by running a deficit, the interest rate rises and investment falls.

Policy 3: Government Budget Deficits and Surpluses
A budget surplus increases the supply of loanable funds, reduces the interest rate, and stimulates investment.

Figure 5 The U.S. Government Debt
Percent
of GDP
1790
1810
1830
1850
1870
1890
1910
1930
1950
1970
1990
2010
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Copyright©2004 South-Western

Summary
The U.S. financial system is made up of financial institutions such as the bond market, the stock market, banks, and mutual funds.
All these institutions act to direct the resources of households who want to save some of their income into the hands of households and firms who want to borrow.

Summary
National income accounting identities reveal some important relationships among macroeconomic variables.
In particular, in a closed economy, national saving must equal investment.
Financial institutions attempt to match one person’s saving with another person’s investment.

Summary
The interest rate is determined by the supply and demand for loanable funds.
The supply of loanable funds comes from households who want to save some of their income.
The demand for loanable funds comes from households and firms who want to borrow for investment.