The composite sentences

The composite sentence:
The compound sentence
The complex sentence

A composite sentence (складне речення)
in English and Ukrainian
contains two or more primary predication centers mostly represented by as many corresponding clauses.

semi-compound and semi-complex sentences
“One doesn’t give up a god easily and so with White Fang” (J. London)
One doesn’t give up a god easily, and so (it is/ it was) with White Fang in Ukrainian equivalents are as follows:
1) Не так легко відмовитися від свого власника – бога, саме так і в Білозубця.
2) Не так легко відмовитися від свого власника – бога, саме так (було це) і в Білозубця.

Він застав двері відчиненими. = Він застав двері (вони були) відчиненими.
He leaned far out of the window and he saw the first light spread (J. Galsworthy). –
Він висунувся далеко з вікна і помітив, що починають пробиватися перші промені.

2. The compound sentence with conjunctions
copulative
disjunctive
adversative
compound sentences with causative interrelations between clauses
consecutive interrelations between clauses

2.1. The copulative compound sentence.
In the English language the copulative sentences are joined by conjunctions and, neither … nor, now … now, not … but.
In Ukrainian the typical conjunctions in this type of the sentence are: і (й), та, та й, і …і …, ні … ні …, ані … ані … and others.
The most widespread of them are the English conjunction “and” and the Ukrainian conjunction “і (й)”.

Meaning of the Ukrainian conjunction i and the English and
a) The proper copulative meaning (власно-єднальне значення)
b) The adjoining meaning (приєднувальне значення) In English grammars this meaning is also sometimes called a copulative-relative meaning (єднально-відносне значення).
c) The meaning of recounting (перелічувальне значення).
d) The meaning of consequence (наслідкове значення).

The English conjunction and is also widely used with the copulative-adversative meaning (в єднально-протиставному значенні) which mostly corresponds to the Ukrainian conjunction a.
The Ukrainian conjunction та й is used less frequently in the Ukrainian language than the conjunction і (й) though it can render the same shades of connection.
The composite conjunction (складений сполучник) та й is used mainly in the copulative function

The copulative-negative meaning (єднально-заперечний зв’язок) is formed in the English language with the help of negative conjunctions neither, nor, not only … but; in Ukrainian – ні …, ні …; ані …, ані …; не тільки …, а (але) і (й).
The Ukrainian conjunction не тільки …, а (але) і (й) has as its correspondence close in the meaning the English conjunction not only … but
The negative conjunctions in English neither … nor and in Ukrainian ні …ні, ані …ані are antonyms to the English conjunction both … and and the Ukrainian conjunction як …, так і

2.2. The disjunctive compound sentence.
or, either … or,
або; або …або; чи; чи …чи; то …то; не то … не то; чи то … чи то
The boy’s wife might have died; or he might have come back and said, "Father, I have sinned" (W. Thackerey).
Чи підпалено, чи може самі необережними були (М. Коцю­бинський).

In Ukrainian the quantity of disjunctive conjunctions is a bigger one than in English, but the most spread of them are the conjunctions або and чи.
The conjunction або has the most general meaning, pointing towards the separation of things or ideas, whereas the conjunction чи is derived from the interrogative particle and that is why retains the interrogative shade of meaning.

The double conjunctions або …або; чи …чи; то …то; не то … не то; чи то … чи то denote the separation in the facts alternation
То ми до них ходили, то вони до нас. (Ю. Корнійчук.)
The conjunction не то … не то renders simultaneously doubt or hesitation
Не то осінні води шуміли, збігаючи в Дунай, не то вітер бився в заломах провалля (М. Коцюбинський)

2.3. The adversative compound sentence
а, але, та (але), так, зате, проте, однак, все ж and others in Ukrainian
but, while, whereas, or as well as with the help of connective adverbs (сполучні прислівники) yet, still, nevertheless, however, otherwise.
The main expression of such relations between sentences is performed in English by the conjunction but. In Ukrainian it has as its correspondence the conjunction але.

Main meanings of the conjunctions
but, але
a) The limiting meaning (обмежувальне значення)
He said he would stay quiet in the hall, but he simply couldn't any more (J. Galsworthy). Він міг би залишитися, але йому не вистачало мужності.
b) The concessive meaning (допустове значення)
Twilight gave place to night, but he didn't turn on the light (H. Wells). Стемніло, але він не засвітив лампи.
с) The relative meaning (відносне значення)
Some people likened him to a direction post …, but these were his enemies (Ch. Dickens). Противник кинувся до апаратів, але вони мовчали.

In Ukrainian besides але there is also widely used the adversative conjunction a. It has more shades of meaning than the conjunction але
– contrasting (протиставлення): Буде сонце нам світити, а ворогам ніколи;
– sequence of events (послідовність подій): Він ішов попереду, а я позаду;
– separate fulfilling of events (роздільність дій за характером виконання): Ти молотом дзвени, працюй, а ти, поете, співай, завжди співай (В. Сосюра).
– conclusion (висновок): От і станція Соколгорна, а у грудях вже серцю тісно (Нагнибіда).

The English conjunction while has the meaning of opposing, similar to some meanings of the Ukrainian adversative conjunction a.
Jos went into a collapsed state to an inn, while Dobbin escorted the ladies (W. Thackerey). Він пішов додому, а я лишився в клубі.
Somehow similar in their meaning are the English conjunction or and the Ukrainian conjunction а то.
It's lucky they took off their boots, or we should fill the place with clatter (H. Wells). Добре, що вони роззулися, а то наробили б шуму.
The English conjunction otherwise also has the meaning close to it
You have no documents – otherwise you would have handed them to the Colonel (Heym). Нема в тебе документів, а то (інакше) б ти показав їх полковнику.

English connective adverbs yet, still, nevertheless have the adversative meaning with the shade of concession, which corresponds to some meanings of the Ukrainian adversative conjunction та.
That train would bear her away from him; yet he could not help fidgeting at the thought that they would lose it (J. Galsworthy) … Ще клевета на нас не замовкає, – та стоїмо ми табором одним …
(М. Рильський).

2.4. The causative-consecutive compound sentences
і, а
so (that), for,
therefore.
the second sentence expresses explanation, confirmation, conclusion or consequence of the idea expressed in the first part of the compound sentence.

The consecutive connection
in English with the help of the conjunction so (less often therefore),
in Ukrainian – with the help of the conjunction a,
She hasn’t much strength in her, so I easily kept her quiet
(Ch. Dickens).
Повернувся козак Нечай на лівеє плече, а вже з ляшків, вражих синів. Кров ріками тече
The causative connection
the English conjunction for
the Ukrainian conjunction i, It was not yet daylight, for the candle was burning (Ch. Dickens).
Андрій почув у руці одрізані пальці, і злість туманом піднялась йому до мозку (М. Коцюбинський)

2.5. Compound sentences with the meaning of suddenness (складносурядне речення із значенням раптовості)
formed most often with the help of the conjunctions аж, коли, як
used in the emotionally coloured speech.
Ой пішла я у яр за водою, аж там милий гуляє з другою
(Т. Шевченко).
Сьогодні вранці я спокійно сиджу вдома, коли дзвонити твій секретар (Ю. Корнійчук).

3. Compound sentences with asyndetically joined clauses (складносурядні речення без сполучників)
a) Compound sentences with an implicit though quite transparent copulative interrelation between the constituent clauses and with close semantic and syntactic ties between the succeeding and preceding clauses.
b) Compound sentences of the second subtype are characterized by a still looser connection between the ajoined clauses which are marked by a comma or a semicolon.

The complex sentence
presents a universal unit in the syntactic systems of all 5, 651 languages of the world.
has some isomorphic features of its own:
1) the complex sentence has a poly-predicative nature;
2) it is characterized by the subordinate way of joining the clauses to the principal/matrix clause;
3) it may consist of homogeneous clauses or of consecutively dependent clauses joined to the matrix clause or to each other syndetically or asyndetically;
4) the arsenal of syndetic means of connection includes conjunctions, connective pronouns, connective adverbs and subordinating connec­tive words;
5) the connectors join clauses and express some logical-grammatical relations formed within the complex sentence.

I.V. Korunets’
In English
In Ukrainian
1. Substantive-nominal:
a) subject subordinate clauses,
b) predicative subordinate clauses,
c) objective subordinate clauses.
1. Субстантивно-номінативні:
а) підметові підрядні речення,
б) присудкові підрядні речення,
в) додаткові підрядні речення.
2. Qualitatively-nominal:
a) descriptive attributive clauses,
b) restrictive/limiting attributive clauses.
2. Квалітативно-номінативні:
а) описові атрибутивні підрядні речення,
б) обмежуючі атрибутивні підрядні речення.
3. Adverbial clauses:
of time, place, purpose, cause, attending circumstances, condition, concession, result, etc.
3. Адвербіальні підрядні речення:
Часу, місця, мети, причини, способу дії, умови, допусту, наслідку тощо.

I.V. Korunets’

Yu.O. Zhluktenko
claims that the structure of complex sentences and the types of complex sentences do not show much difference in English and in Ukrainian.
wider use of the complex sentences in the principal part of which there is a correlative or relative (or demonstrative) word (корелятивне, або співвідносне або вказівне слово) which is concretized or specified by the subordinate clause.

1. The subject clause / Підметове підрядне речення
In English such sentences are joined with the help of the conjunctions that, whether, if and the connective words (сполучні слова) who, what, which, the pronouns whatever, whoever, whichever, the pronominal adverbs where, when, why, how, e.g.:
That he has made this mistake is strange. Whether he will come is uncertain.
Ukrainian subject clauses are most often connected with the help of relative pronouns хто, що in the form of different cases. The main clause necessarily contains the correlative (or demonstrative) word which performs the function of the formal subject, most often these are such words as – той, та, те, ті, or весь (вся, все, всі). Compare:
Перемагає той, хто невідступно бореться. Всі, хто побачив його, вклонилися.

2. The predicative clause / Присудкове підрядне речення
In English such sentences are connected with the help of the conjunctions that, whether, if, as if, and the connective words what, who, why, where, how, when, e.g.:
This is what I have thought for the last fifteen years.
The weather is not what it was yesterday.
In Ukrainian predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause by means of the conjunctions and the connective words хто, що, який, щоб and others. The principal clause contains necessarily the correlative word той (та, те, ті), or такий (така, таке, такі), e.g.:
Він не такий, щоб без діла сидіти. Ми – ті, що ви хотіли бачити [5; 144].

3. The object/objective clause / Підрядне додаткове речення
English object clauses are connected by means of the conjunctions that, whether, if and those connective words that are used for subject and predicative subordinate clauses. The asyndetic connection of object clauses is also widespread.
In Ukrainian the most characteristic conjunctions of object clauses are що and щоб. Besides, the following connective words are also widely used: pronouns хто, що, який, чий, котрий, стільки; adverbs як, де, куди, звідки, коли, чому, нащо. Compare:
We didn't forget that our destination was far away.
Ми не забували, що до мети ще далеко.

4. Attributive clauses / Підрядні означальні речення
In English attributive clauses are joined to the principal clause with the help of the following connective words: relative pronouns who, which, that, relative adverbs when, where, why or they can be joined without conjunctions at all.
In the Ukrainian language the attributive clause is typically connected with the principal clause with the help of the connective words який, чий, хто, що, котрий in different forms. More rarely they are joined with the help of the connective words де, куди, звідки, коли, як. Sometimes attributive clauses are connected with the help of the conjunctions як, ніби, наче, неначе, мов, немов, and others.
In both languages attributive clauses are not homogeneous in their grammatical nature and are subdivided into two distinct groups – restrictive/limiting (обмежувальні) and descriptive (описові).

Restrictive attributive clauses are tightly connected with a certain word of the main clause performing the function of its attribute. Moreover, the idea expressed by the main clause does not finish on its boundary with the subordinate clause; when the subordinate sentence is removed the meaning of the principal clause becomes blurred, unclear. Compare:
There was a small stone at that corner of the room which was the nearest to the master's desk (Ch. Dickens).
У тому кутку кімнати, що був найближче до столу вчителя, був невеликий камінь.
Descriptive attributive clauses also belong to one member of the main clause but are not connected with it so tightly. Such subordinate clauses can be easily omitted without distorting the content of the main clause. Compare:
The manager of our office, who is a highly educated man, speaks several foreign languages.
Менеджер нашої установи, який є високоосвіченим, розмовляє кількома іноземними мовами.

5. Adverbial clauses / Підрядні обставинні речення
5.1. Adverbial clauses of place / підрядні речення місця.
English sentences are joined to the main clause with the help of the connective words where, wherever, whence.
Ukrainian adverbial clauses of place are connected with the principal clause with the help of the connective words де, куди, звідки (розм. відкіль, звідкіль). Unlike English in the Ukrainian main clauses there can be observed the use of the so-called demonstrative words – adverbs, having spatial meaning, – там, туди, звідти (розм. звідтіль, відти), for example:
Звідти, звідки на темному фоні неба все частіше спалахувала блискавка, загуркотів грім.
In the English main clauses demonstrative words of such a meaning are not used in similar cases, and the main function of the expression of relations of place and direction is rendered with the help of the connective word and the context. Compare:
I shall go where my brother lives. Я поїду туди, де живе мій брат.

5.2. Adverbial clauses of time / підрядні речення часу.
the conjunctions when, while, as, after, before, till, until, since, as long as, etc.
connective words and conjunctions: коли, відколи, поки (розм. покіль), аж поки, доки (розм. докіль), аж доки, як після того як, в міру того як, тільки, як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве, скоро and others.
I recognized the place directly I saw it. – Я пізнав це місце, як тільки його побачив.
The connective function with the meaning of time is performed in modern English also by some nouns or word-combinations: the moment (в ту мить як), the day (в той день коли), the evening (у той вечір коли), the next time (наступного разу), at the time (в той час як), by the time (до того часу коли), etc.:
The moment I saw him I understood everything. – У ту мить, як я його побачив, я все зрозумів.

5.3. Adverbial clauses of manner (attending circumstances) / підрядні речення способу дії (супровідних обставин)
the conjunctions as, the way, as if, as though.
e.g.: You speak so as if you did not know me. – Ви говорите так, ніби ви мене не знаєте.
the connective word як and the conjunctions: як, ніби, мoв, немов, наче, неначе, ніж (розм. аніж), що and others.
Він ішов так, наче добре знав дорогу.
a) Adverbial clauses of manner proper (власне способу дії), joined in English with the help of the conjunctions: as, as … as and others; in Ukrainian – як, що, щоб, e.g.: You ought to write as he does. Буде так, як хотіла ти (В. Сосюра).
b) Adverbial clauses of comparison (порівняльні) with the conjunctions: in English as if, as though; in Ukrainian як, ніби, мов, немов, наче, неначе, e.g. I remember this story as if (as though) I had just read it. А він, мов нічого не чув, іде собі далі
(А. Малишко).
c) Adverbial clauses of result (наслідкові) with the conjunctions: in English so … that; in Ukrainian що, аж, for example: He played so that we admired him. Вода б’ється в береги, аж осока шумить (Леся Українка).

5.4. Adverbial clauses of measure or degree / підрядні речення міри або ступеня.
In English such sentences are connected with the main clause with the help of the conjunctions as…as, so…as, as, as if, as though, not so...as and others, e.g.: He played so well that everybody admired him. – Він грав так гарно, що всі ним захопилися.
In Ukrainian the adverbial clauses of measure or degree also include clauses joined with help of double conjunctions чим…тим, що…то, чим…то and others, for example: Чим вище дерево тим, глибше йде коріння. Що далі ми заглиблювалися в ліс, то темніше ставало навкруги.

5.5. Adverbial clauses of purpose / підрядні речення мети
English adverbial clauses of purpose are joined with the help of the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest, for fear (that). These clauses are marked in the way that their predicate has a special modal expression. Very often it is used in the analytical form of conditional mood: I speak slowly so that you may understand me. Я говорю повільно, щоб ви мене зрозуміли.
In Ukrainian such clauses are joined most often by the conjunctions щоб and для того щоб, less often by – аби, for example: Він піде туди, щоб почути все самому.

5.6. Adverbial clauses of cause / підрядні речення причини.
Adverbial clauses of cause are joined in English to the main clause with the help of the conjunctions because, as, since, now that. Sentences with the conjunction because point towards the immediate cause of action or state, which is spoken about in the main clause, while the adverbial clause of cause with the conjunction as usually motivates content of the main sentence. Compare:
I went away because there was no one there. – Я пішов, бо там не було нікого.
As there was no one, I had to work alone. – Оскільки там не було нікого, я мусив працювати один.
In Ukrainian most frequently used in adverbial clauses of cause conjunctions are: бо, тому що, через те що, тим що, від того що, що, а що, а як and others. The most peculiar of them are бо, тому що, через те що, for example: Він не ходить на збори, тому що боїться критики.

5.7. Adverbial clauses of condition / підрядні речення умови.
In English the adverbial clauses of condition are joined with the help of the conjunctions if, unless, but that, in case, provided, suppose, supposing and others. The most often of them is the conjunction if. The conjunctions unless and but having negative meaning, point to the fact that the action of the main sentence can take place only in case, when the action of the subordinate sentence does not take place, for example:
He is sure to come unless he has some urgent work to do. – Він обов’язково прийде, якщо тільки в нього немає якої-небудь дуже термінової роботи.
In Ukrainian adverbial clauses of condition are connected with the help of the conjunctions коли, якщо, як, як тільки, аби, скоро, раз and others. When the adverbial clause of condition is placed before the main one, then the latter starts with the conjunction-equivalent то: Якби я знала, що діждуся, що побачу, то ще б підождала (Т. Шевченко) .

5.8. Adverbial clauses of concession / підрядні речення допусту.
Adverbial clauses of concession are joined in English with the help of the conjunctions and the connective words though (although), in spite of the fact that, notwithstanding that, whoever, what ever, however, no matter that.
Though it was only nine o'clock, there were few people in the streets. – Хоч було лише дев’ять годин, на вулицях було мало людей.
He went out in spite of the fact that he was quite ill. – Він вийшов, хоч був зовсім хворий.
In Ukrainian adverbial clauses of concession are joined with the main clause by means of the conjunctions and the connective words хоч (хоча, хоть), хай (нехай), дарма що, незважаючи на те що, як не, скільки не and others. These conjunctions can have as their correlatives the adversative conjunctions а, але, однак, проте etc., for example: Хоч уже листя падало, осінню пахло, а проте було тепло та ясно (П. Мирний).

5.9. Adverbial clauses of result / підрядні речення наслідку.
Adverbial clauses of result are joined in English to the main sentence with the help of the composite conjunction so that or the conjunction that, which has as its correlative the demonstrative adverb so, compare:
She sat behind me so that I couldn't see her face. – Вона сиділа позаду мене, так що я не міг бачити її обличчя.
The weather was so bad that the plane could not start. – Погода була така погана, що літак не міг вилетіти.
Ukrainian adverbial clauses of result have the same type of conjunction так що (й): Підхопили всі, всі враз і з усіх сил, так що коні шарахнулися набік (Ю. Смолич).
In both languages adverbial clauses of result usually occupy the position after the main clause.