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CIVIL LAW Property includes the right of any person to: Possess Use and enjoy Dispose of a thing CIVIL LAW The term “ownership” is used synonymously with rights in property. Thus, one is said to be the owner of a certain property, meaning that he has certain interests in the designated thing. Continental Law system – the word “property” is used to indicate subject matter in which rights exist. Common Law system – the word “property” is traditionally used to describe not the object itself, but rather that interest in the object that the law recognizes.

CIVIL LAW Promissory note Bill of exchange Cheque others CIVIL LAW Characteristics of a negotiable instrument: Easy transferability. They are transferable from one person to another Transferee can sue in his own name. A note, bill of exchange or a cheque gives the right to the creditor to recover something from debtor. The creditor can recover this amount himself or can transfer this right to another person. When he transfers his right, the transferee of the negotiable instrument can sue the debtro in his own name in case of his dishonour, without giving notice to the debtor of the fact that he has become holder.

CIVIL LAW 3. The promise to pay must be unconditional. The promise to pay must not depend upon the happening of some uncertain event or fulfillment of condition. It must be absolute. If it contains a conditional promise, it is not a valid promissory note (Wrong – “I promise to pay B $500 seven days after my marriage with C.”) CIVIL LAW 4. It must be signed by the maker in any part of the instrument. 5. The maker must be a certain person. 6. The payee must be certain. 7. The sum payable must be certain. 8. The sum payable must be in national currency.

Transactions Transactions Form of transaction Oral form. A transaction for which legislation or agreement of the parties do not prescribe a written form or any other form may be entered into orally, in particular, any transactions which are executed upon their performance. Written form: simple or notary A transaction, which is confirmed by issuance of a token, ticket or any other sign generally accepted for confirmation, shall be deemed to be concluded in oral form, if laws do not provide otherwise.

Subjects of civil rights: commercial legal entities Business partnerships (Articles 58-84 of the RK Civil Code): Full partnership (полное товарищество) -Special partnership (коммандитное товарищество) -LLP (ТОО) -ALP (ТДО) Production cooperative (производственный кооператив) (Articles 96-101 of the RK Civil Code) Joint Stock Companies (Articles 85-95 of the RK Civil Code) State enterprise (государственное предприятие) (Articles 102-104) Joint Stock Company General Provisions: Shareholder is a person (physical or legal) who/which owns shares. Share is a security emitted by the JSC and confirming right to participate in management of JSC, to receive dividends on it and right to receive part of property of JSC after its liquidation, as well as other rights stipulated by laws. Voting shares are (a) placed ordinary shares; and (b) preferential shares with a right to vote in cases provided for by laws. Declared shares are shares, emission of which is registered by the competent body. Placed shares are shares of JSC paid out by the founders and investors at the initial securities market.

Subjects of civil rights: commercial legal entities Business partnerships (Articles 58-84 of the RK Civil Code): Full partnership (полное товарищество) -Special partnership (коммандитное товарищество) -LLP (ТОО) -ALP (ТДО) Production cooperative (производственный кооператив) (Articles 96-101 of the RK Civil Code) Joint Stock Companies (Articles 85-95 of the RK Civil Code) State enterprise (государственное предприятие) (Articles 102-104) Limited Liability Partnership LLP shall mean a partnership organized by one or several persons (physical or legal), charter capital of which is divided on amount of shares (размер долей) ascertained by the foundations documents; LLP`s participants shall not be liable fro obligations of LLP and shall bear risk of damages related to the LLP`s activities only within amount of contributions made by them thereinto. LLP shall be deemed as established for indefinite period of time unless foundation documents provide that it is created for definite period of time or until definite objective is achieved. LLP is a legal entity. LLP shall bear liable for its obligations by all property belonged to the LLP. LLP shall not be liable for obligations of its participants.

Subjects of civil rights: legal entities Legal entity shall mean an organization which: Has on the basis of ownership right, right of business authority or right of operational management its separate assets; Is liable for its obligations by its assets; May in its name acquire and exercise proprietary and personal non-proprietary rights and obligations; Can be the plaintiff and the defendant in the court; Has independent balance-sheet or budget; Has stamp with its name thereon. Subjects of civil rights: legal entities Types of legal entities: Commercial legal entity shall mean an organization which pursues an extraction of profits as main purpose of its activity; Non-commercial legal entity shall mean an organization which does not extract profits as such a goal and does not allocate gained profits between its participants.

Subjects of civil rights (civil law) The RK citizens & other individuals The Republic of Kazakhstan Legal entities Administrative-territorial units Subjects of civil rights: individuals Citizens of the Republic of Kazakhstan Foreign citizens Apatrides (лица без гражданства)

Representation A transaction which is entered into by one person (representative) on behalf of any other person (represented) by virtue of the authority based on power of attorney, legislation, a decision of the court or any administrative act, shall directly create, alter or terminate the civil rights and obligations of the represented. Representation TYPES OF REPRESENTATION Obligatory Voluntary By operation of law: With respect to minors: parents, adopters, guardians & sponsors; 2) With respect to incapable people: guardians; 3) With respect to limited in deed capacity people: sponsors; 4) Representation without powers: carrying out actions without powers or with exceeding powers, shall create, change or terminate civil rights and obligations for represented person only after subsequent approval by him of that transaction. On the basis of court decision, or administrative act. On the basis of power of attorney; agreement, or commercial representation.

Acquisition of right of ownership and other proprietary rights The right to own a new object shall belong to the person who manufactured or created it, unless it is otherwise stipulated in an agreement or legislation. The right to own fruit, production, or income received as a result of the use of the property, shall be acquired by the person who used that property on a legal basis. The right to own the property which already have an owner may be acquired by any other person on the basis of sale-purchase agreement, exchange agreement, gift agreement, or any other transaction on alienation of that property. Acquisition of right of ownership and other proprietary rights In the case of demise of a citizen, the right to own the assets which belong to him shall be transferred via inheritance to other persons in accordance with the will or law. In the case of reorganizing a legal entity, the right to own the assets which belong to it shall be transferred to the legal entities which are legal successors of the reorganised legal entity. The alienation of the property from an owner to any other person without the will of the owner shall not be permitted, except for the cases stipulated in the RK Code (ex.: imposition of levy under the obligations of the owner through the court).

Common property Property which is in the ownership of two or more persons shall belong to them under the right of common ownership. Property can be in common ownership with the determination of the share of each of the owners in the ownership right (shared ownership) or without determining such shares (joint property). Common ownership of any assets shall be shared ownership, except for the cases where the law stipulates the formation of joint ownership of the property. Common property Common ownership shall emerge when two or several persons receive the property which may not be divided without changing its designation (indivisible items), or may not be divided by virtue of law. Common ownership on divisible assets shall emerge in the cases which are stipulated in legislative acts or an agreement. Upon consent of the participants of common joint property, and in the case of a failure to reach consensus, upon the decision of a court, common shared ownership of participants may be established with regard to the common property.

Right of ownership and other proprietary rights Right of ownership shall be a recognised and protected by legislative acts the right of a subject at its/his/her own discretion to possess, use and dispose of the property which belongs to it/him/her. Right of ownership shall be transferred to another person with all its encumbrances at the moment of commitment of a transaction. The owner shall have the rights to: (1) possess, (2) use and (3) dispose of his assets. The right to possess shall represent the legally-enforced capacity to exercise the actual possession of assets. Right of ownership and other proprietary rights The right to use shall represent the legally-enforced possibility to extract from the assets their useful natural properties and also to extract benefits out of it. A benefit may be in the form of income, gain, fruit and in any other forms. The right to dispose shall represent the legally-enforced capacity to determine the legal destiny of property. The owner shall have the right at his discretion to perform, with regard to the property which belongs to him, any actions including the alienation of the property into the freehold of any other persons, or to transfer to them, remaining the owner, his rights associated with possession, use and disposal of the property, to pledge the property and to encumber it by any other methods and dispose of it in any other way.

Concept and grounds for emergence of obligations Pursuant to an obligation one person (a debtor) shall be obliged to commit for the benefit of another person (a creditor) certain actions, e.g. to transfer assets, perform work, pay money, etc., or abstain from certain actions, and the creditor shall have the right to claim from the debtor the fulfilment of his obligation. The creditor shall be obliged to accept the fulfilment from the debtor. Several persons may participate simultaneously in an obligation, collectively constituting either of the parties, creditor or debtor. In those cases, in accordance with the rules established by the RK Civil Code, an obligation shall arise which is a shared, solidary or subsidiary obligation. Concept and grounds for emergence of obligations If pursuant to an obligation each of the parties bears a liability for the benefit of the other, the first party shall be deemed to be a debtor of the other in what it is to do to the benefit of the other, and simultaneously, a creditor in what it has the right to claim from the other party. Participants in an obligation shall be the parties (debtor and creditor) and third persons. Obligations shall emerge from an agreement, infliction of damage or on any other bases which are stipulated in Article 7 of the RK Civil Code.

Objects of Civil Relationships Objects of Civil Relationships Types of goods in civil law: movable and immovable property Immovable property: land lots, buildings, structures, perennial plantations and any other assets which are strongly fixed to the ground, i.e. objects, displacement of which is impossible without unreasonable damage to their designation. Proprietary rights for immovables shall have legal force only after their registration with registration bodies (Law on registration of rights for immovables and transactions related thereto dated July 26, 2007) Objects, which are not immovable property, shall constitute movables. Also air and sea vessels, vessels of domestic water travel, vessels of river-sea sailing and cosmic objects, which are subject to state registration shall be equaled to immovable property. Registration of rights for movable property is not required except cases provided for by laws (Law on registration pledge of movable property dated June 30, 1998)

MARKETING MIX- PRICING Market-Skimming Pricing: set high prices to "skim" revenues layer by layer from the market e.g. Intel with it computer chips Conditions that must be present in skimming: quality and image enough buyers competitors should not be able to enter the market easily Cost of producing small amounts must not prevent charging more MARKETING MIX- PRICING Market-Penetration Pricing: set a low initial price in order to penetrate the market quickly and deeply. e.g. Dell computers Conditions that must be present in penetration: price sensitive mkt so that a low price produces more market growth production and distribution costs must fall as sales volume increases the low price must help keep out the competition

MARKETING MIX - PLACE I. Store Retailing: 1) Amount of Service a) Self-service e.g. supermarket b) Limited-service retailers e.g. sales assistance as the result of higher prices c) Full-service retailers e.g. Specialty stores and first-class department stores MARKETING MIX - PLACE 2) Product Line a) Specialty Store is a narrow product line with a deep assortment within that line e.g. sporting goods, furniture, books, flowers, or toys stores; single-line store is a clothing store limited-line store is a men's clothing store super-specialty store is a men's custom shirt store b) Department Store carries a wide variety of product lines e.g. clothing, home furnishings, and household goods

Determinants of GDP Growth In Neoclassic Theory GDP volume and growth are determined by: Savings rate Rate of population growth Rate of technical progress A key determinant of growth is technology However, a country needs not to invent new technology It can grow by ‘borrowing’ technology and by investing in physical and human capita1 1. THE ENDOGENOUS GROWTH Background Neo-classical growth theory dominated economic thought from 1950 to 1980 The Neo-classical growth theory illustrates that: Growth depends on capital and labour growth and factor productivity In steady state there are zero growth of per capita savings and growth of per capita output By 1980s dissatisfaction arose with neo-classical theory Development in developed countries did not support the neo-classical growth theory Savings rates and growth were positively correlated across developed countries So, endogenous growth theory was developed

Economic Condition: Developed and less developed countries The Western has far more higher incomes than their great grandfathers People in developed countries are far wealthier than people in the less developed countries Graph -1 shows GDP for four countries over more than 150 years Figure 3-1: GDP Growth of USA, Japan, Norway and Bangladesh GDP USA Japan Norway Bangladesh 1860 2009 (Year) Figure 3-1: GDP Growth of USA, Japan, Norway and Bangladesh GDP USA Japan Norway Bangladesh 1860 2009 (Year)

1. COMPONENTS OF DEMAND Analysis of demand for output Output is split into components of demand Total demand for domestic output is made up of following four components: Consumption spending of the households (C), Investment spending of the businesses (I) Government’s purchases of goods and services (G) Foreign demand (NX) The four components of the total output is expressed into following identity: Y= C+ I+ G+ NX (1) It (1) is called national income accounting identity 2. CONSUMPTION Main component of demand is consumption (Table-1) Consumption includes spending on anything (e.g. food to golf lessons) It also involves consumption spending on durable goods (e.g. automobiles) Such spending normally regarded as investment rather than consumption Table – 1: Components of demands 2007

In developing countries, the development of a well-functioning infrastructure is more important than the development of new technology. Macroeconomics is concerned with the growth of the economy, and employment and income generation So, it studies the behaviour of the economy as a whole Macroeconomics studies: Significance of total output Rates of inflation and unemployment Booms and recessions Essence of Balance of payments and Exchange rates

Definition of Economics Lord J.M Keynes, the defines economics as the “study of the administration of scarce resources and of the determination of income and employment.” Benham defines economics as “a study of the factors affecting the size, distribution and stability of a country’s national income.” Division of Economics The modern economists divided economics into: Microeconomics, and Macroeconomics. 1. Microeconomics Microeconomics considers economy as units of smaller parts Microeconomics studies the behaviour of: Individual production factors (Land, labourers, capitalists, entrepreneurs), Individual industries (textiles, iron, steel, transport, etc) Consuming units (individual consumers and households) Production units (firms, farms, businesses) Flow of factors of production (land, labour, capital) from resource owners to business firms, and Flow of goods and services from business firms to consumers

Сравнительный анализ экономических систем Рыночные системы -Либертарианцы -Монетаристы -Кейнсианцы -Школа промышленной политики -Сторонники политики доходов (контроля цен и доходов) Нерыночные системы -Индикативное планирование -Директивное планирование Собственность, капитализм и социализм -Экономические системы, основанные на частной собственности, -Экономические системы, основанные на коллективной собственности -Экономические системы, основанные на государственной собственности Classifying market economic systems according to the extent of government intervention

Cells Cells are active participants in their environment, constantly adjusting their structure and function to accommodate changing demands and extracellular stresses. Cells tend to maintain their intracellular milieu within a fairly narrow range of physiologic parameters; that is, they maintain normal homeostasis. CELLULAR ADAPTATIONS As cells encounter physiologic stresses or pathologic stimuli, they can undergo: adaptation achieving a new steady state preserving viability and function The principal adaptive responses are hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy, metaplasia.

Acquired immunity The immunity acquired during the lifetime of an individual is known as acquired immunity. Acquired immunity differs from innate immunity in the following respects: It is not inherent in the body but is acquired during life. It is specific for a single type of microorganism. ANTIGEN is a substance which, when introduced parenterally into the body, stimulates the production of an antibody with which it reacts specifically in an observable manner. The main property of the antigen is immunogenicity.