GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

Problems for discussion
Handling equivalent forms and structures
Handling equivalent-lacking forms and structures
Handling modal forms
Key words:
Correspondence, grammatical forms, syntactic order, permanent grammatical equivalent, grammatical transformations, similarity/dissimilarity, a lack of equivalence.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Every word in the text is used in a particular grammatical form and all the words are arranged in sentences in a particular syntactic order.
Grammaticality is an important feature of speech units.
Grammatical forms and structures, except for providing the correct arrangement of words in the text, also convey some information which is part of its total contents.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
They reveal the semantic relationships between the words, clauses and sentences in the text, they can make prominent some part of the contents that is of particular significance for the communicants.
The syntactic structuring of the text is an important characteristics identifying either the genre of the text or its author's style.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Though the bulk of the information in the original text is conveyed by its lexical elements, the semantic role of grammatical forms and structures should not be overlooked by the translator.
The importance of the grammatical aspects of the source text is often reflected in the choice of the parallel forms and structures in TL.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Equivalence in translation can be best achieved if the translator does not try to mirror the grammatical forms in the source text.

The principal types of grammatical correspondences between two languages are as follows:
- complete correspondence;
- partial correspondence;
- the absence of correspondence.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
NB There are no permanent grammatical equivalents and the translator can choose between the parallel forms and various grammatical transformations.
There is no absolute identity between the meaning and usage of the parallel forms in SL and TL.
F.e., both English and Russian verbs have their infinitive forms (but - a number of formal and functional differences).

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
The English infinitive has perfect forms, (active and passive), indefinite and continuous, which are absent in the respective grammatical category in Russian.
The idea of priority or non-performed action expressed by the Perfect Infinitive is not present in the meaning of the Russian Infinitive and has to be rendered in translation by some other means.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
'The train seems to arrive at 5."
- Поезд, видимо, приходит в 5.
and
'The train seems to have arrived at 5."
- Поезд, видимо, пришел в 5.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
A dissimilarity of the English and Russian Infinitives can be also found in the functions they perform in the sentence.
(for example, the Continuative Infinitive which in English denotes an action following that indicated by the Predicate):

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Parliament was dissolved, not to meet again for eleven years.
Парламент был распущен и не созывался в течение 11 лет.
Не came home to find his wife gone.
Он вернулся домой и обнаружил, что жена ушла.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
A similar difference can be observed if one compares the finite forms of the verb in English and in Russian.
The English and the Russian verbs both have active and passive forms, but in English the passive forms are more numerous and are more often used.
As a result, the meaning of the passive verb in the source text is often rendered by an active verb in the translation:

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
This port can be entered by big ships only during the tide.
Большие корабли могут заходить в этот порт только во время прилива.
(The sentence can certainly be translated in some other way, e.g.
Этот порт доступен для больших кораблей только во время прилива.)

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
A most common example of dissimilarity between the parallel syntactic devices in the two languages is the role of the word order in English and in Russian/Ukrainian.
Both languages use a "direct" and an "inverted" word order.
But the English word order obeys, in most cases, the established rule of sequence: the predicate is preceded by the subject and followed by the object.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
This order of words is often changed in the Russian/Ukrainian translation since in Russian/Ukrainian the word order is used to show the communicative load of different parts of the sentence, the elements conveying new information (the rheme) leaning towards the end of non-emphatic sentences.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Thus if the English sentence
"My son entered the room"
is intended to inform us who entered the room, its Russian/Ukrainian equivalent will be
«В комнату вошел мой сын / До кімнати увійшов мій син»
but in case its purpose is to tell us what my son did, the word order will be preserved:
«Мой сын вошел в комнату/ Мій син увійшов до кімнати».

HANDLING EQUIVALENT FORMS AND STRUCTURES
The predominantly fixed word order in the English sentence means that each case of its inversion makes the object carry a great communicative load.
This emphasis cannot be reproduced in translation by such a common device as the inverted word order in the Russian sentence and the translator has to use some additional words to express the same idea:
Money he had none.
Денег у него не было ни гроша.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
The English grammatical form that has no direct equivalent in Russian/Ukrainian may be a part of speech, a category within a part of speech or a syntactical structure.
The article is part of the English grammar and is absent in Russian and Ukrainian.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
As a rule, English articles are not translated into Russian and Ukrainian for their meaning is expressed by various contextual elements and needn't be reproduced separately.
Translating the phrase "the man who gave me the book" with the Russian «человек, который дал мне книгу» the translator needn't worry about the definite article since the situation is definite enough due to the presence of the limiting attributive clause.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
There are some cases, however, when the meaning of the article has an important role to play in the communication and should by all means be reproduced in TT.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
A passenger was looking for a place to put his bag. –Какой-то пассажир искал место, куда поставить сумку.
I have found a fellow student who agreed to help me. –Я нашел одного сокурсника, который согласился помочь.
A Mr. Brown has left a message for you. – Вам оставил сообщение некий (какой-то) г-н Браун.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
The Past Indefinite forms may correspond either to the perfective or to the imperfective Russian forms and the choice is largely prompted by the context.
After supper he usually smoked in the garden.
После ужина он обычно курил в саду.
After supper he smoked a cigarette in the garden and went to bed.
После ужина он выкурил в саду сигарету и пошел спать.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
The Past Pefect forms!!! - referring to an action prior to some other action or a past moment.
I hoped he had read that book.
(а) Я надеялся, что он читал эту книгу, (б) Я надеялся, что он (уже) прочитал эту книгу.
And, again, the broader context will enable the translator to make the correct choice.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
English syntactical (infinitival, participial or gerundial) complexes have no parallels in Russian and Ukrainian.
Translating sentences with such complexes always involves some kind of restructuring.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Absolute Participle constructions
1-st. An Absolute construction must be correctly identified by the translator.
The identification problem is particularly complicated in the case of the "with"-structures which may coincide in form with the simple prepositional groups.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
The phrase "How can you play with your brother lying sick in bed" can be understood in two different ways: as an Absolute construction and then its Russian equivalent will be «Как тебе не стыдно играть, когда твой брат лежит больной (в постели)» or as a prepositional group which should be translated as «Как тебе не стыдно играть с твоим больным братом».

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Then the translator should consider the pros and cons of the possible translation equivalents.
The meaning of the Absolute Participle construction can be rendered into Russian with the help of a clause, an adverbial participle (деепричастие) or a separate sentence.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Using a clause involves the identification of the specific adverbial function of the construction:
"Business disposed of, we went for a walk."
- Когда (так как) с делом было покончено, мы отправились погулять.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
This can be avoided by using an adverbial participle, but then care should be taken to refer it to the subject: Покончив с делом, мы отправились погулять.
(Dangling participles are common in English but are usually not used in literary Russian.
"But coming from West Indies, his chances were very slim"
and «Подъезжая к станции, у меня слетела шляпа».)

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
The same sentence can be rendered into Russian by two separate sentences: Работа была закончена. Мы отправились погулять.
This method is not infrequently used by the translators, whenever it suits the style of the narration.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Specific translation problems emerge when the translator has to handle a syntactical complex with a causative meaning introduced by the verb 'to have" or "to get", such as:
"I shall have him do it" or "I shall have him punished".

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
First, the translator has to decide what Russian causative verb should be used as a substitute for the English "have" or "get".
Depending on the respective status of the persons involved, the phrase
"I shall have him do it" may be rendered into Russian as «Я заставлю его (прикажу ему, велю ему, попрошу его и т.п.) сделать это» or even «Я добьюсь (позабочусь о том, устрою так и т.п.), чтобы он это сделал».

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
Second, the translator must be aware that such complexes are polysemantic and may be either causative or non-causative.
The phrase “The general had his horse killed" may refer to two different situations.
Either the horse was killed by the general's order
(Генерал приказал убить свою лошадь)
or he was killed in combat and the general was not the initiator of the act but the sufferer
(Под ним убили лошадь).

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
An error in the translator's judgement will result in a distorted translation variant.
Many equivalent-lacking structures result from a non-causative verb used in the typical causative complex.
Preserving its basic meaning the verb acquires an additional causative sense.

HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING FORMS AND STRUCTURES
They laughed merrily.
Они весело смеялись.
They laughed him out of the room.
Они так смеялись над ним, что он убежал из комнаты.
In such cases the translator has to choose among different ways of expressing causative relationships in TL.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
Modality is a semantic category indicating the degree of factuality that the speaker ascribes to his message.
A message can be presented by its author as a statement of facts, a request or an order, or something that is obligatory, possible or probable but not an established fact.
Modal relationships make up an important part of the information conveyed in the message.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
The translator must be able to understand various modal relationships expressed by different means in SL and to choose the appropriate means in TL.
English makes use of three main types of language units to express modal relationships: modal verbs, modal words and word groups, and mood forms.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
Modal verbs are widely used in English to express various kinds of modality.
The translator should be aware of the fact that an English modal verb can be found in some phrases the Russian equivalents of which have no particular modal forms.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
She can speak and write English.
Она говорит и пишет по-английски.
I can see the English coast already.
Я уже вижу берег Англии.
Why should you say it?
Почему ты так говоришь?

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
There is no direct correspondence between the English and the Russian modal verbs and the translator should choose the appropriate word which fits the particular context.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
Most English modal verbs are polysemantic.
So "must" can express obligation or a high degree of probability.
"May" implies either probability or moral possibility (permission).
"Can" denotes physical or moral possibility, etc.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
You must go there at once.
Вы должны тотчас же пойти туда.
You must be very tired.
Вы, должно быть, очень устали.
Не may know what has happened.
Может быть, он знает, что произошло.
Не may come in now.
Теперь он может (ему можно) войти.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
But when a modal verb is used with a Perfect Infinitive form, it loses, as a rule, its polysemantic character.
Thus, "must have been" always implies certainty, "may have been", probability, while "can't have been", improbability.
It should also be noted that the Perfect Infinitive may indicate either a prior action (after "must", "may", "cannot") or an action that has not taken place (after "should", "ought to", "could", "to be to").

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
He must have told her about it yesterday.
Должно быть, он сказал ей об этом вчера.
Не should have told her about it yesterday.
Он должен был (ему следовало) сказать ей об этом вчера.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
Special attention should be given to the form "might have been" where the Perfect Infinitive can have three different meanings: a prior action, an action that has not taken place and an imaginable action.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
I might have spoken too strongly.
Возможно, я был слишком резок.
You might have done it yourself.
Вы могли бы это сделать сами.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
Among other means of expressing modality mention should be made of parenthetical modal words:
"certainly", "apparently", "presumably, "allegedly", "surely", "of course", "in fact", "indeed", "reportedly” and the like, as well as similar predicative structures:
"it is reported", "it is presumed", "it is alleged", etc.

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
They may all express various shades of modal relationships.
For instance, "indeed" may be rendered as «более того, поистине, фактически» и т.п., "in fact" — «на самом деле, более того, словом» и т.п.,
"above all" - «прежде всего, более всего, главным образом».

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
Some of the modal adverbs ("surely", "easily", "happily" and the like) have non-modal homonyms.
What should he do if she failed him? Surely die of disappointment and despair.
Что с ним будет, если она его обманет? — Несомненно, он умрет от разочарования и отчаяния.
(Неге "surely" is a modal word.)

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
The English mood forms give relatively little trouble to the translator since he can, as a rule, make use of the similar moods in Russian and Ukrainian.
Note should be taken, however, of those forms of the English Subjunctive (the Conjunctive) which are purely structural and express no modal meanings that should be reproduced in translation:

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
It is important that everyone should do his duty.
Важно, чтобы каждый выполнил свой долг.
I suggest that we all should go home.
Я предлагаю всем пойти домой!

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
Do not forget that while the English language has practically no modal particles, the Russian language has.
Whenever necessary, Russian particles (ведь, хоть, мол, де, дескать и др.) should be used to express modality which is expressed in the source text by other means or only implied:

HANDLING MODAL FORMS
After us the deluge.
После нас хоть потоп.
Не was in wild spirits, shouting that you might dissuade him for twenty-four hours.
Он пришел в неистовство и кричал, что вы можете его разубеждать хоть круглые сутки.

Causes of Grammatical transformations
Causes: Grammatical transformations are motivated by the difference in the grammatical structure of the two languages.
Grammatical transformations are accounted for one main reason – the divergences in the structure of the two languages.

Grammatical transformations
Grammatical transformations are those of grammatical phenomena, constructions, word combinations in SL which creates discrepancies discovered by a translator.
Such discrepancies can take place due to several factors:

Grammatical transformations
Absence of grammatical equivalent in TL for corresponded phenomena in SL.
Differences in meaning and usage of the equivalents.
Syntactical differences.
Word-formation discrepancies.

Grammatical transformations
e.g. They say- говорят
you see- понимаешь

Grammatical transformations
Transposition;
Replacement;
Addition;
Omission;
Sentence fragmentation: - Inner fragmentation; - Outer fragmentation;
Sentence integration.

Using grammatical transformations
Factors that depend on using grammatical transformations:
syntactic function of the sentence;
structure and lexical coloring;
sense structure;
context of the sentence;
expressive and stylistic function.

Grammatical transformations
Transposition- is a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements (Subject, Predicate, Object, etc.) as compared with that of the source sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by the communication intent.

Grammatical transformations
It is performed usually due to the difference in the thematic-rhematic composition of the sentence as in Russian rheme, as a rule, at the end of the sentence.

Grammatical transformations
e.g. The flight will be boarding at Gate 17 in about fifteen minutes.
Приблизительно через 15 минут на этот рейс будет посадка у выхода номер 17.

Grammatical transformations
Replacement- is any change in the target text at the morphological, lexical and syntactic levels of the language when the elements of the certain source paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms.

Grammatical transformations
e.g. He used to come to Italy each spring.
Обычно он приезжал в Италию каждую весну.

Grammatical transformations
Addition- is a device intended for the compensation of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language.

Grammatical transformations
e.g. The policeman waved me on.
Полицейский помахал мне рукой, показывая, что я могу проезжать

Grammatical transformations
Sometimes semantic units available or implied in the deep structure drop out when it is transformed into the surface structure.
These semantic units should be deduced from the deep structure and added in the process of translation.

Grammatical transformations
E.g. oil countries – страны-производители нефти,
wages demand – требование повысить зарплату,
solid engine - двигатель на твердом топливе.

Grammatical transformations
Omission- is reduction of the elements of the source text considered redundant from the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and stylistics.
e.g. Summer rains in Florida may be violent, while they last.
Летом во Флориде бывают сильные дожди.

Grammatical transformations
We also omit words that are not necessary for understanding or expressing a certain coloring.
One of the cases or superfluity is the use in English of twin-pair synonyms mostly typical of judicial documents.

Grammatical transformations
E.g. regular and normal session – обычная сессия;
with the Advice and Consent of the Senate – с согласия Сената.

Grammatical transformations
Sentence integration- implies combining two or more source sentences into the target sentence.
e.g. Your presence is not required. It is not desirable.
Ваше присутствие не требуется и не желательно.

Grammatical transformations
Sentence fragmentation- is either replacing in translation of the source sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a compound or complex target one.

Grammatical transformations
e.g. Come along and see me play one evening.
Приходи как- нибудь вечером- посмотришь, как я играю.

Grammatical transformations
Inner fragmentation- is a conversion of a simple sentence into a compound or complex one.
e.g. C развитием промышленности появится много товаров.
When the industry improves we will have a lot of goods.

Grammatical transformations
Outer fragmentation- is a division of a sentence in two or more sentences.

Grammatical transformations
e.g. There was a real game too, not a party game played in the old school hall and invented by my eldest brother Herbert, who was always of an adventurous character until he was changed by the continual and sometimes shameful failures of his adult life.
Была у нас и настоящая, не салонная игра- мы играли в нее в старом актовом зале. Придумал ее наш старший брат Герберт- человек изобретательный и склонный ко всяким авантюрам, пока постоянные и иногда позорные промахи во взрослой жизни не изменили его натуру.