Intellectual property

THE CONCEPT OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual property, very broadly, means the legal rights which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. Countries have laws to protect intellectual property for two main reasons. One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development.

Generally speaking, intellectual property law aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control the use made of those productions. Those rights do not apply to the physical object in which the creation may be embodied but instead to the intellectual creation as such.
Intellectual property is traditionally divided into two branches,
“industrial property” and “copyright.”
THE CONCEPT OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

THE CONVENTION ESTABLISHING THE WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION (WIPO), CONCLUDED IN STOCKHOLM ON JULY 14, 1967 PROVIDES THAT “INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY SHALL INCLUDE RIGHTS RELATING TO:
- literary, artistic and scientific works,
- performances of performing artists, phonograms and broadcasts,
- inventions in all fields of human endeavor,
- scientific discoveries,
- industrial designs,
- trademarks, service marks and commercial names and designations,
- protection against unfair competition,
- and all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.”

COPYRIGHT BRANCH
The areas mentioned as literary, artistic and
scientific works belong to the copyright branch
of intellectual property. The areas mentioned as
performances of performing artists, phonograms
and broadcasts are usually called “related rights,”
that is, rights related to copyright. The areas
mentioned as inventions, industrial designs,
trademarks, service marks and commercial names
and designations constitute the industrial
property branch of intellectual property.

“INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY”
The expression “industrial property” covers
inventions and industrial designs. Simply stated,
inventions are new solutions to technical problems
and industrial designs are aesthetic creations
determining the appearance of industrial products. In
addition, industrial property includes trademarks,
service marks, commercial names and designations,
including indications of source and appellations of
origin, and protection against unfair competition.

THE WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION (WIPO)
The WIPO is one of the specialized agencies of the
United Nations (UN) system of organizations.
The mission of WIPO is to promote through international cooperation the creation, dissemination, use and protection of works of the human mind for the economic, cultural and social progress of all mankind. Its effect is to contribute to a balance between the stimulation of creativity worldwide, by sufficiently protecting the moral and material interests of creators on the one hand, and providing access to the socio-economic and cultural benefits of such creativity worldwide on the other.

THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, WHICH A UNIVERSITY OR R&D
INSTITUTION MAY WISH TO PURSUE :
patents;
utility models;
industrial designs;
trademarks;
copyrights;
trade secrets, etc

PATENTS
WHAT IS A PATENT AND WHAT DOES IT DO?
A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which sometimes is a product or a process that provides a innovation of doing something, or offers a new technical solution to a known problem.
A patent provides protection for the invention to the owner of the patent. The protection is granted for a limited period, generally 20 years from the filing date of the patent application.

WHAT KIND OF PROTECTION DOES A PATENT OFFER?
Patent protection means that the invention cannot be commercially made, used, distributed, imported or sold without the patent owner’s consent. These patent rights are usually enforced in a court which, in most systems, holds the authority to stop patent infringement. Conversely, a court can also declare a patent invalid upon a successful challenge by a third party.

WHAT RIGHTS DOES A PATENT OWNER HAVE?
A patent owner has the right to decide who may or
may not use the patented invention for the period in
which the invention is protected.
The patent owner
may give permission to, or license, other parties to
use the invention on mutually agreed terms. The
owner may also sell the right to the invention to
someone who will then become the new owner of the
patent. A patent owner does not necessarily have
the right to use the patented invention – there may exist superior (earlier) patents of third parties that in case of use might be infringed.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE PROTECTION PERIOD EXPIRES?
Once a patent expires, the protection ends and an invention enters the public domain, i.e. the owner no longer holds exclusive rights to the invention and the invention becomes available for commercial exploitation by others, free of charge

WHY ARE PATENTS USEFUL?
Patents provide incentives to individuals by
Offering them recognition for their creativity and
material rewards for their marketable inventions. These incentives encourage innovation, which
ensures that the quality of human life is
continuously enhanced.
Patent owners and licensees may enjoy
Commercial advantages because of the exclusivity
position given by a patent. Patents are ideal vehicles
for technology transfer.

WHAT ROLE DO PATENTS PLAY IN EVERYDAY LIFE?
All patent owners are obliged, in return for patent
protection, publicly to disclose information on their
invention in order to enrich the total body of technical
knowledge in the world. Such an ever-increasing
body of public knowledge promotes further creativity
and innovation by others. Patents therefore provide
not only protection for the owner but valuable
information and inspiration for future generations of
researchers and inventors.

WHAT KINDS OF INVENTIONS CAN BE PATENTED?
It is possible to protect inventions in any technological
field, for example, a product or process in the following
main areas human necessities such as
agriculture, foodstuffs, tobacco, personal or domestic articles and health;
processes such as separation, mixing, shaping, printing, transportation and formation;
engineering fields, including mechanical, electrical, civil and structural, chemical, textile instrumentation and measurement, and mining;
science, including physics, chemistry and biotechnology

WHAT CANNOT BE PATENTED?
In many countries, the following are not regarded
as inventions for patent protection :
discoveries or findings that are products or processes where mankind has not participated in their creation;
scientific and mathematical methods and theories;
schemes, e.g., investments or insurance schemes;
business methods as such, like credit and stock methods;
computer programs as such; etc

PATENTABILITY REQUIREMENTS
There are three major requirements for an
application for the issue of a patent .
These are:
novelty,
inventive step,
industrial application or utility

HOW IMPOSING A PATENT SYSTEM ON A FIELD WHERE THERE IS INCREMENTAL INNOVATION CAN RETARD PROGRESS?
You see, the advocates of software patents say “Well, yes,
there may be problems, but more important than any problems,
the patents must promote innovation, and that is so important it
doesn’t matter what problems they cause.” Of course, they don’t
say that out loud because it is ridiculous, but implicitly they
want you to believe that as long as the patent system promotes
innovation, that outweighs any possible cost. But actually, there
is no reason to believe it does promote progress. We now
have a model showing precisely how patents can retard
progress.

UTILITY MODELS
In general terms, utility models protect “small
inventions” which may be less inventive and thus may
not be protected under a patent. The inclusion of
utility models in the intellectual property has the
primary objective of encouraging rapidly evolving,
native innovations, particularly in small and medium-
sized enterprises as well as the informal sector.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS
WHAT IS AN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN?
An industrial design is the ornamental or aesthetic aspect. The
design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or
surface of an article, or of two-dimensional features, such as patterns,
lines or color.
Industrial designs are applied to a wide variety of products from
industry and handicrafts: from technical and medical instruments to
watches, jewelry and other luxury items; from domestic wares and
electrical appliances to vehicles and architectural structures; from
textile designs to leisure goods.
To achieve protection under most national laws, an industrial design
must appeal to the eye.
This means that an industrial design is primarily of an aesthetic nature
and does not protect any technical features of the article to which it is
applied

WHY PROTECT INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS?
Industrial designs are what make an article attractive
and appealing, hence they add to the commercial value of
a product and increase its marketability.
When an industrial design is protected, the owner - the person
or entity that has registered the design - is guaranteed an
exclusive right against unauthorized copying or imitation of the
design by third parties and in some countries (like in
the European Union) even protects in an absolute sense, like a
patent against unauthorized use by others.
This helps to ensure a fair return on investment.

TRADEMARKS
WHAT IS A TRADEMARK?
A trademark is a distinctive sign which
identifies certain goods or services as those
produced or provided by a specific person or
enterprise. The system helps consumers to
identify and purchase a product or service
because its nature and quality, indicated by its
unique trademark, meet their needs.

WHAT DOES A TRADEMARK DO?
A trademark provides protection for the owner of the mark by
ensuring the exclusive right to use it in order to identify goods or
services, or to authorize another person to use it in return for
payment.
The period of protection varies but a trademark can be renewed
indefinitely, beyond the time limit on payment of additional fees.
Trademark protection is enforced by the courts which in most
systems have the authority to block trademark infringement. In a
broader sense, trademarks promote world-wide initiative and
enterprise, by rewarding the owners of trademarks with
recognition and financial profit.

WHAT KINDS OF TRADEMARKS CAN BE REGISTERED?
The possibilities are almost limitless. Trademarks may be one or a combination of
words, letters and numerals. They may consist
of drawings, symbols, three-dimensional signs
such as the shape and packaging of goods,
audible signs such as music or oral
distinguishing features and smells.

COPYRIGHTS
WHAT IS A COPYRIGHT AND WHAT DOES IT COVER?
Copyright is a legal term describing rights given to
creators for their literary and artistic works. The
kinds of works covered by copyright include literary
works such as novels, poems, plays, reference works,
newspapers, computer programs, databases, films,
musical compositions, choreography, artistic works
such as paintings, drawings, photographs and
sculpture, architecture, and advertisements, maps,
and technical drawings.

WHAT RIGHTS DOES A COPYRIGHT PROVIDE?
The creators of original works protected by copyright, and
their heirs, have certain basic rights. They hold the exclusive
right to use or authorize others to use their works on agreed
terms. The creator of a work can prohibit or authorize:
its reproduction in various forms, such as a printed publication
or sound recording;
its public performance, as in a play or musical work;
its recordings, for example in the form of compact discs,
cassettes, or videotapes;
its broadcasting, by radio, cable, or satellite;
its translation into other languages, or its adaptation, such
as a novel into a screenplay.

WHAT BENEFITS MAY A CREATOR OF COPYRIGHT HAVE?
Many creative works protected by copyright require mass distribution,
communication, and financial investment for their dissemination (for
example, publications, sound recordings, and films). Hence, creators often
sell the rights to their works to the individuals or companies best able to
market the works in return for payment. These payments are often made
dependent on the actual use of the work, and are then referred to as
royalties.
The creator - or the owner of the copyright in a work – can enforce rights
administratively and in the courts, by inspecting premises for evidence of
production or possession of illegally made - “pirated” - goods related
o protected works. The owner may obtain court orders to stop
such activities, as well as seeking damages for the loss of financial rewards
and recognition.

HOW HAS COPYRIGHT KEPT PACE WITH ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY?
The field of rights related to copyright has expanded
enormously with the technological progress of the past
few decades, which has brought new ways of spreading
creations by such forms of world-wide communication
as satellite broadcasts and compact discs. Dissemination
of works via the Internet is merely the latest
development which raises new questions concerning
copyright. WIPO is deeply involved in the ongoing
International debate to shape newstandards for
copyright protection in cyberspace.

TRADE SECRETS
WHAT ARE TRADE SECRETS?
Trade secrets comprise confidential data, information or
compilations used in research, business, commerce or
industry. Universities and R&D institutions, government
agencies, business entities and individuals may own and
use trade secrets. The information may include confidential
scientific and technical data and business, commercial or
financial information not publicly known, which is useful
in an enterprise and that confers competitive advantages
on a person having the right to use such information.
The secrecy of the information must be maintained so
as to preserve its trade secret status.

A FAMILIAR EXAMPLE OF A TRADE SECRET IS THE FORMULA FOR COCA-COLA.
If the formula had been patented, it would no
longer be a secret since patent law requires public
disclosure of the invention. Anyone who
independently and legitimately discovers the
secret of the Coca-Cola formula can use that
discovery and the Coca-Cola Company would
have no legal means to stop them.