Leadership and Motivation

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Roadmap
What is leadership?
How does a leader exercise power?
What are leadership skills and traits?
Theories of leadership behavior
How to improve your leadership skills
Individual determinants of behavior
Need-based approaches to motivation
Process approaches to motivation
Behavioral approaches to motivation
Beyond motivation

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Managers Versus Leaders
“Not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders”
Managers
Persons whose influence on others is limited to the appointed managerial authority of their positions
Leaders
Persons with managerial and personal power who can influence others to perform actions beyond those that could be dictated by those persons’ formal (position) authority alone
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Power and Leadership
Legitimate Sources of Power
Position in the organization (formal authority)
Reward
Coerce or punish
Expertise
Referent power (charisma)
Control over information or access to resources (gatekeeper)
What does Kitchen say about power?
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Behavioral Theories of
Leadership
Behavioral theories of leadership
Theories that attempt to isolate behaviors that differentiate effective leaders from ineffective leaders
Behavioral studies focus on identifying critical behavioral determinants of leadership that, in turn, could be used to train people to become leaders
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Leadership Studies
The Ohio State Studies sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior
Initiating structure
Consideration
The University of Michigan Studies sought to identify the behavioral characteristics of leaders related to performance effectiveness
Employee oriented
Production oriented
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
The Managerial Grid
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Leadership Behaviors or
Styles
Autocratic style of leadership
A leader who centralizes authority, dictates work methods, makes unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation
Democratic style of leadership
A leader who involves employees in decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals, and uses feedback to coach employees
A democratic-consultative leader seeks input and hears the concerns and issues of employees but makes the final decision him or herself
A democratic-participative leader often allows employees to have a say in what’s decided
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Continuum of Leader Behavior
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Transactional versus Transformational Leadership Behaviors
Transactional Leadership Behaviors
Leadership actions that focus on accomplishing the tasks at hand and on maintaining good working relationships by exchanging promises of rewards for performance.
Transformational Leadership Behaviors
Leadership actions that involve influencing major changes in the attitudes and assumptions of organization members and building commitment for the organization’s mission, objectives, and strategies.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
The Main Behaviors of Level 5 Leaders
Personal Humility
Demonstrates a compelling modesty, shunning public adulation, never boastful.
Acts with quiet, calm determination; relies principally on inspired standards, not inspiring charisma, to motivate.
Channels ambition into the company not the self; sets up successors for even more greatness in the next generation.
Looks in the mirror, not out the window, to apportion responsibility for poor results, never blaming other people, external factors, or bad luck.
Professional Will
Creates superb results, a clear catalyst in the transition from good to great.
Demonstrates an unwavering resolve to do whatever must be done to produce the best long-term results, no matter how difficult.
Sets the standard of building an enduring great company; will settle for nothing less.
Looks out the window, not in the mirror, to apportion credit for the success of the company—to other people, external factors, and good luck.
Source: Jim Collins, “Level 5 Leadership,” Harvard Business Review, January 2001, p. 73.
FIGURE 10–1
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Situational Theories Of Leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership
Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale
Leaders who describe their least preferred coworker favorably (pleasant, smart, and so on) are “high LPC” and are considered more people-oriented.
“Low LPCs” describe least preferred coworkers unfavorably; they’re less people-oriented and more task-oriented.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Situational Theories Of Leadership
Appropriateness of a high-LPC or low-LPC leadership style depends upon:
Position power
The degree to which the position itself enables the leader to get group members to comply with and accept his or her decisions and leadership
Task structure
How routine and predictable the work group’s task is.
Leader-member relations
The extent to which the leader gets along with workers and the extent to which they have confidence in and are loyal to him or her.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 10–4
How the Style of Effective Leadership Varies with the Situation
Source: Adapted and reprinted by permission of the Harvard Business Review. “How the Style of Effective Leadership Varies with the Situation” from “Engineer the Job to Fit the Manager” by Fred E. Fiedler, September–October 1965. Copyright © 1965 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Situational Theories Of Leadership (cont’d)
Path–Goal Leadership Theory (House)
Assumes that the leader’s job is to ensure that followers are motivated to do their jobs, and is based on the expectancy theory of motivation.
The leader’s job
To increase the personal rewards subordinates receive for attaining goals
To make the path to these goals easier to follow by reducing roadblocks—setting goals, explaining what needs to be done, and organizing the work.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
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G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Situational Theories Of Leadership (cont’d)
Substitutes for Leadership Theory (Kerr and Jermier)
Various characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization may either substitute for (render unnecessary) direct intervention by the leader or neutralize (prevent) the leader’s best efforts.
Implications for leaders:
Choose the right followers
Organize the task properly
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Situational Theories Of Leadership (cont’d)
Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
The theory that leaders may use different leadership styles with different members of the same workgroup, based in part on perceived similarities and differences with the leader.
Leaders tend to divide subordinates into an in-group and an out-group based on perceived leader–member similarities.
Members of the in-group tend to perform better than do those in the out-group.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Situational Theories Of Leadership (cont’d)
The Vroom–Jago–Yetton Model
A situational model based on a continuum of five decision styles with differing degrees of employee participation that enables leaders to analyze a situation and decide how much participation is called for using:
A set of management decision styles
A set of diagnostic questions
A decision tree for identifying how much participation the situation calls for.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 10–5
Types of Management Decision Styles
G.Dessler, 2003

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Vroom–Jago–Yetton Model’s Diagnostic Questions
Is there a quality requirement such that one solution is likely to be more rational than another?
Is there sufficient information to make a high-quality decision?
Is the problem structured?
Is acceptance of the decision by subordinates critical to effective implementation?
If you alone make the decision, is it reasonably certain that it would be accepted by your subordinates?
Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be obtained in solving this problem?
Is conflict among subordinates likely over preferred solutions?
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 10–6
Vroom and Yetton Decision Process Flow Chart (Decision Tree)
Source: Adapted from Leadership and Decisionmaking by Victor H. Vroom and Philip W. Yetton, by permission of the University of Pittsburgh Press. Copyright © 1973 by University of Pittsburgh Press.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Situational Theories Of Leadership
Hersey–Blanchard Situational Leadership Model
A model aims to provide a practical way for a leader to decide how to adapt his or her style to the task.
Model focuses on four leadership styles:
The delegating style lets the members of the group decide what to do.
The participating style asks the members of the group what to do, but makes the final decisions.
The selling style makes the decision but explains the reasons.
The telling style makes the decision and tells the group what to do.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Situational Leadership
Situational leadership theory (SLT)
Leaders should adjust their leadership styles—telling, selling, participating, and delegating—in accordance with the readiness of their followers
Acceptance: Leader effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leader
Readiness: A follower’s ability and willingness to perform
At higher levels of readiness, leaders respond by reducing control over and involvement with employees
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 10–7
Summary of the Situational Leadership Model
Source: Jerald Greenberg, Managing Behaviour in Organizations: Science in Service (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996). Reprinted by permission.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 10–8
Applying the Situational Leadership Model
Source: Adapted from Paul Hersey, Situational Selling (Escondido, CA: Center for Leadership Studies, 1985), p. 19. Reprinted with permission.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership theory
Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors
People working for charismatic leaders are motivated to exert extra work effort and, because they like and respect their leaders, express greater satisfaction
Charisma leadership appears to be most appropriate when the followers’ task has a ideological component or when the environment involves a high degree of stress and uncertainty
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
How To Improve Your Leadership Skills
Skill 1: Think Like a Leader
Identify what is happening
Explain why it is happening
Decide what you are going to do about it.
Skill 2: Use an Appropriate Leadership Style
Leaders usually fit their style to the situation.
Different leadership styles are appropriate to different situations.
Skill 3: Pick the Right Leadership Situation
Gravitate toward leadership situations that fit your favored leadership style.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
How To Improve Your Leadership Skills
Skill 4: Build Your Power Base
Bolster your leadership potential by enhancing your authority (increasing your power).
Skill 5: Exercise Better Judgment
Decisiveness and good judgment (“cognitive ability”) are important leadership traits.
Skill 6: Improve Leadership Traits and Skills
Exhibit self-confidence.
Display honesty and integrity.
Increase your knowledge of the business.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Motivation
Motivation
The intensity of a person’s desire to engage in an activity.
The Law of Individual Differences
A psychological term representing the fact that people differ in their personalities, abilities, self-concept, values, and needs.
Three main approaches to motivation
Need-based approach
Process-based approach
Learning/reinforcement-based approach.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to cope with environmental demands and pressures
Dimensions of EI
Self-awareness of own feelings
Self-management of own emotions
Self-motivation in face of setbacks
Empathy for others’ feelings
Social skills to handle others’ emotions
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Some Individual Determinants of Behavior
FIGURE 11–1
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors
FIGURE 11–2
Source: Adapted from Gregory Northcraft and Margaret Neale, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Dryden Press, 1994), p. 87.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
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FIGURE 0–3
Four Examples of MBTI Styles and
Some Corresponding Occupations
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Big Five Model of Personality
Factors
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional stability
Openness to experience
Prentice Hall, 2002

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Abilities and Behavior
Performance = Ability x Motivation
Types of abilities
Mental, cognitive, or thinking abilities
Mechanical ability
Psychomotor abilities
Visual skills
Specific learned abilities
(training, experience, or education)
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Self-Concept and Behavior
Self-Concept
The perceptions people have of themselves and their relationships to people and other aspects of life.
Self-Efficacy
Being able to influence important aspects of one’s world; the belief that one can accomplish what one sets out to do.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Perception and Behavior
Perceptions
How our personalities and experiences cause us to interpret stimuli.
Perceptions are influenced by:
Personality and needs (self-efficacy)
Values (strong personal code of ethics)
Stress (health and environment)
Position in society or an organization
Stereotyping
Associating certain characteristics with certain socioeconomic classes but not with others.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Attitudes and Behavior
Attitude
A predisposition to respond to objects, people, or events in either a positive or negative way.
Attitudes are important because they can influence how people behave on the job.
Good (or bad) performance is not necessarily associated with good (or bad) attitudes.
Job Satisfaction
The measure of an employee’s
attitude about his or her job.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Need-based Approaches To Motivation
Motive
Something that incites a person to action or that sustains and gives direction to action.
Motivational Dispositions or Needs
Motives that lie dormant until the proper conditions arise bring them forth or make them active.
Aroused Motive
A motive that expresses itself in behavior.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Need-based Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory
People have a hierarchy of five increasingly higher-level needs:
Physiological, security, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization.
Prepotency Process Principle
People are motivated first to satisfy the lower-order needs and then, in sequence, each of the higher-order needs.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 11–5
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Need-based Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) Theory
Alderfer’s theory of human needs focuses on three needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
Existence needs are similar to Maslow’s physiological and security needs.
Relatedness needs are those that require interpersonal interaction to satisfy (prestige and esteem from others).
Growth needs are similar to Maslow’s needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Need-based Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
Herzberg’s Hygiene-Motivator (Two-Factor) Approach
Reduces Maslow’s hierarchy to:
Hygienes: lower-level (physiological, safety, social)
Motivators: higher-level (ego, self-actualization) needs.
Posits that the best way to motivate is to arrange the job (job enrichment) so that it provides intrinsic satisfaction of higher-level needs, since these needs are constantly recurring and relatively insatiable.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 11–6
Summary of Herzberg’s Motivator–Hygiene Findings
Source: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 1968.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Need-based Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
Needs for Achievement, Power, and Affiliation
The Need for Achievement
A predisposition to strive for success and the satisfaction of accomplishing a challenging task or goal.
The Need for Power
A desire to influence others directly by making suggestions, giving opinions and evaluations, and trying to talk others into things.
The Need for Affiliation
The motivation to maintain strong, warm relationships with friends and relatives.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Process Approaches To Motivation
Adams’s Equity Theory
People have a need for, and therefore value and seek, fairness in employer–employee relationships.
If a person perceives an inequity, a tension or drive will develop in the person’s mind, and the person will be motivated to reduce or eliminate the tension and the perceived inequity.
Employees can do this by reducing what they put into the job, or by boosting the magnitude of the rewards they take out (or both).
It matters less what the reality is than how the person perceives his or her inputs and outputs as compared with the other (referent) person’s.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 11–8
How a Perceived Inequity
Can Affect Performance
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Process Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
Locke’s Goal Theory of Motivation
People regulate their behavior in such a way as achieve their goals.
A person’s goals provide the mechanism through which unsatisfied needs are translated into actions.
Unsatisfied needs prompt the person to seek ways to satisfy those needs; the person then formulates goals that prompt action.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Process Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
Goal Theory of Motivation Findings
Specific, challenging goals lead to higher task performance than specific, unchallenging goals, or vague goals or no goals, when:
Feedback showing progress towards the goals is provided.
Appropriate task strategies are used when tasks are complex.
Individuals have adequate abilities.
There is a commitment to accomplishing the goals.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Process Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
People are conscious agents who are continually sizing up situations in terms of their perceived needs and then acting in accordance with these perceptions.
Motivation = E x I x V
E represents expectancy (probability of success)
I is instrumentality (correlation)
V is valence (value of a particular reward)
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Learning/Reinforcement Approaches To Motivation
Learning
A relatively permanent change in a person that occurs as a result of experience.
Motivation based on experience tends to be instinctive rather than a product of a deliberate thought process (as is process-based motivation).
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Learning/Reinforcement Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
B. F. Skinner and Operant Behavior
Operant behavior
Behavior that appears to operate on or have an influence on the subject’s environment.
Contingent reward
A reward that is contingent or dependent on performance of a particular behavior.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Learning/Reinforcement Approaches To Motivation (cont’d)
Behavior Modification
The technique of changing or modifying behavior through the use of contingent rewards or punishments.
Behavior modification has two basic principles:
Behavior that leads to a reward tends to be repeated, whereas behavior that leads to punishment tends not to be repeated.
It is possible to get a person to learn to change his or her behavior by providing the properly scheduled rewards.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Motivation In Action: Ten Methods For Motivating Employees
Set Goals
Use Pay for Performance
Improve Merit Pay
Use Recognition
Use Positive Reinforcement
Use Behavior Management
Empower Employees
Enrich the Jobs
Use Skill-Based Pay
Provide Lifelong Learning
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
FIGURE 11–14
How to Analyze Performance-Motivation Problems
Source: Copyright Gary Dessler, Ph.D. Suggested in part by “Performance Diagnosis Model,” David Whetton and Kim Cameron, Developing Management Skills (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), p. 339.
G.Dessler, 2003

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
Beyond Motivation
Ghoshal, S.and Bruch, H. Going Beyond Motivation to the Power of Volition. MIT Sloan Management Review 44(3), Spring 2003.

May 2, 2006
LIS580- Spring 2006
The Organization as an Iceberg
Metaphor
Prentice Hall, 2002