Supply, Demand, and Government Policies

Supply, Demand, and Government Policies
In a free, unregulated market system, market forces establish equilibrium prices and exchange quantities.
While equilibrium conditions may be efficient, it may be true that not everyone is satisfied.
One of the roles of economists is to use their theories to assist in the development of policies.

CONTROLS ON PRICES
Are usually enacted when policymakers believe the market price is unfair to buyers or sellers.
Result in government-created price ceilings and floors.

CONTROLS ON PRICES
Price Ceiling
A legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold.
Price Floor
A legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold.

How Price Ceilings Affect Market Outcomes
Two outcomes are possible when the government imposes a price ceiling:
The price ceiling is not binding if set above the equilibrium price.
The price ceiling is binding if set below the equilibrium price, leading to a shortage.

Figure 1 A Market with a Price Ceiling
(a) A Price Ceiling That Is Not Binding
Quantity of
Ice-Cream
Cones
0
Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone

Figure 1 A Market with a Price Ceiling
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(b) A Price Ceiling That Is Binding
Quantity of
Ice-Cream
Cones
0
Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone

How Price Ceilings Affect Market Outcomes
Effects of Price Ceilings
A binding price ceiling creates
shortages because QD > QS.
Example: Gasoline shortage of the 1970s
nonprice rationing
Examples: Long lines, discrimination by sellers

In 1973, OPEC raised the price of crude oil in world markets. Crude oil is the major input in gasoline, so the higher oil prices reduced the supply of gasoline.
What was responsible for the long gas lines?
CASE STUDY: Lines at the Gas Pump
Economists blame government regulations that limited the price oil companies could charge for gasoline.

Figure 2 The Market for Gasoline with a Price Ceiling
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(a) The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Not Binding
Quantity of
Gasoline
0
Price of
Gasoline

Figure 2 The Market for Gasoline with a Price Ceiling
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(b) The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Binding
Quantity of
Gasoline
0
Price of
Gasoline

CASE STUDY: Rent Control in the Short Run and Long Run
Rent controls are ceilings placed on the rents that landlords may charge their tenants.
The goal of rent control policy is to help the poor by making housing more affordable.
One economist called rent control “the best way to destroy a city, other than bombing.”

Figure 3 Rent Control in the Short Run and in the Long Run
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(a) Rent Control in the Short Run
(supply and demand are inelastic)
Quantity of
Apartments
0
Rental
Price of
Apartment

Figure 3 Rent Control in the Short Run and in the Long Run
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(b) Rent Control in the Long Run
(supply and demand are elastic)
0
Rental
Price of
Apartment
Quantity of
Apartments

How Price Floors Affect Market Outcomes
When the government imposes a price floor, two outcomes are possible.
The price floor is not binding if set below the equilibrium price.
The price floor is binding if set above the equilibrium price, leading to a surplus.

Figure 4 A Market with a Price Floor
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(a) A Price Floor That Is Not Binding
Quantity of
Ice-Cream
Cones
0
Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone

Figure 4 A Market with a Price Floor
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
(b) A Price Floor That Is Binding
Quantity of
Ice-Cream
Cones
0
Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone

How Price Floors Affect Market Outcomes
A price floor prevents supply and demand from moving toward the equilibrium price and quantity.
When the market price hits the floor, it can fall no further, and the market price equals the floor price.

How Price Floors Affect Market Outcomes
A binding price floor causes . . .
a surplus because QS > QD.
nonprice rationing is an alternative mechanism for rationing the good, using discrimination criteria.
Examples: The minimum wage, agricultural price supports

The Minimum Wage
An important example of a price floor is the minimum wage. Minimum wage laws dictate the lowest price possible for labor that any employer may pay.

Figure 5 How the Minimum Wage Affects the Labor Market
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity of
Labor
Wage
0

Figure 5 How the Minimum Wage Affects the Labor Market
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity of
Labor
Wage
0

TAXES
Governments levy taxes to raise revenue for public projects.

How Taxes on Buyers (and Sellers) Affect Market Outcomes
Taxes discourage market activity.
When a good is taxed, the
quantity sold is smaller.
Buyers and sellers share
the tax burden.

Elasticity and Tax Incidence
Tax incidence is the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a market.

Elasticity and Tax Incidence
Tax incidence is the study of who bears the burden of a tax.
Taxes result in a change in market equilibrium.
Buyers pay more and sellers receive less, regardless of whom the tax is levied on.

Figure 6 A Tax on Buyers
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity of
Ice-Cream Cones
0
Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone

Elasticity and Tax Incidence
What was the impact of tax?
Taxes discourage market activity.
When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller.
Buyers and sellers share the tax burden.

Figure 7 A Tax on Sellers
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity of
Ice-Cream Cones
0
Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone

Figure 8 A Payroll Tax
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity
of Labor
0
Wage

Elasticity and Tax Incidence
In what proportions is the burden of the tax divided?
How do the effects of taxes on sellers compare to those levied on buyers?
The answers to these questions depend on the elasticity of demand and the elasticity of supply.

Figure 9 How the Burden of a Tax Is Divided
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity
0
Price
(a) Elastic Supply, Inelastic Demand

Figure 9 How the Burden of a Tax Is Divided
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Quantity
0
Price
(b) Inelastic Supply, Elastic Demand

So, how is the burden of the tax divided?
The burden of a tax falls more
heavily on the side of the
market that is less elastic.
ELASTICITY AND TAX INCIDENCE

Summary
Price controls include price ceilings and price floors.
A price ceiling is a legal maximum on the price of a good or service. An example is rent control.
A price floor is a legal minimum on the price of a good or a service. An example is the minimum wage.

Summary
Taxes are used to raise revenue for public purposes.
When the government levies a tax on a good, the equilibrium quantity of the good falls.
A tax on a good places a wedge between the price paid by buyers and the price received by sellers.