Philosophy of the XIX century

“Every philosophy is the spiritual essence of its age” (Karl Marx)

Since the mid of the 19th century there are the socio-political changes associated with the transition of capitalism in its new phase of “imperialism”

Karl Marx’s philosophy was one of important trends at that time. That philosophy has been directed on understanding of the political-economical processes occurring in society.

Marxist philosophy.
Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)

Marxist philosophy.
Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895)

Originating in 40 years 19 century, Marxism was the theoretical expression of the crisis of classical capitalism

Marxism also reflected the political goals and interests of rising proletariat.

Theoretical sources of Marxism were:
-German classical philosophy
-British political economy
-French utopian socialism

Scientific sources were such discoveries as:
- The opening of ‘cellular (клеточный) structure of organisms

- Darwin’s teaching on origin and development of animals and plants
- Discovery of the law of conservation and transformation energy.

In general, Marx studied development of society is a process of natural history, where the social being determines social consciousness.

History of mankind is divided into:
1. “Prehistory” (the primitive, slave, feudal, bourgeois formations) where the person was not free.

2. “True” history of humanity (where people will truly be free) and it will be created by people deliberately (сознательно).

According to materialism, labor, practice is the foundation of human life. Practice is more original, primary in relation to the whole spiritual life.

Thoughts about the role of practice, Marx described in the “Theses on Feuerbach”.
Every worldview, including philosophical, does not create, but only expresses life, and life is changing on its own laws.

Living in society person enters into numerous contacts with others. As a result, he creates social connections and relationships.

In proletariat Marx and Engels saw a new class, whose vocation (призвание) is the destruction of exploitation (эксплуатация) people.

Destruction of private property is the path to liberation.

Marx assesses (оценивать) proletariat as a practical force, in a’lliance with which philosophy can realize a goal: “Proletariat finds in philosophy its spiritual weapons...”

In his “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844”, Marx calls his philosophy as a real humanism.

Embodiment of real humanity is the elimination of alienation of labor. Man is the ensemble of social relations.

“The Poverty of Philosophy” (1847)
In it Marx formulates the relation of productive forces and productive relations, creates the theory of ‘surplus value (прибав. стоимость).

So, the essence of Marxist philosophy is connection between materialism and dialectics.

Neo-Kantianism
Under the slogan “Back to Kant” was born “Neo-Kantianism” (60 years of the 19th century).

Problem of cognition has a major role. Limiting the sphere of experience, they believed that foundation of cognition is in inborn (врождённый) ‘patterns (образец).

There were two schools:
Marburg school (H.Cohen, P.Natorp, E.Cassirer).
Philosophy is science of cognition, nature.

Baden school
(Wilhelm Windelband, Henry Rickert).
Philosophy is the science of values, spirit.

There also was one more school:
Neo-Hegelianism – an idealistic trend, based on updated (обновление) interpretations of Hegel’s philosophy.

Thomism is the religious philosophy (70 years of the 19th century), which has become philosophy of Vatican.

In 19 cent. philosophy of irrationalism starts to develop which denied a role reasonable beginning in human.
(Opposition to the classical philosophy)

Irrationalism gave a critical evaluation of rational knowledge, defined its boundaries, the limits of its capabilities

The first steps from rationalism to irrationalism were made by S.Kierkegaard, A.Schopenhauer, F.Nietzsche.

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard
(1813-1855)
“Either\or”
“Fear and Trembling”

Kierkegaard distinguishes three stages of human existence:
* Aesthetical,
* Ethical,
* Religious.

Soren Kierkegaard divides people into four types:
1.Everyman lives as his surrounding
2. Aesthetic man chooses own way

3. Ethical man has a sense of duty and responsibility
4. Religious man feels despair (отчаяние), and he is feeling a spiritual breakthrough (прорыв).

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860)
“The World as Will and Representation” (1819)

The Will is understood as an universal cosmic phenomenon, and every force in nature as the Will.

Man is a manifestation of the Will, his nature, therefore, is irrational. The Will fights with itself.
However will to live dictates human acts. And will to live struggles with the Will.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 - 1900)
“Human, All Too Human”
“Thus Spoke Zarathustra” etc.

Great intellects are skeptical. Nietzsche.

“Will to power” pervades (пронизывает) everything: the universe, society, human. It injects (внедряется) itself into the very being

Nietzsche created a prototype liberated man – a Overhuman with hypertrophic will to power – “blond beast” (белокурая бестия).
God is dead (Бог умер).

Nietzsche created a doctrine of the Dionysian and Apollonian beginnings in a person. The Dionysian (destroying) beginning has positive influence on human life. The Apollonian (cultural) beginning is negatively reflected in all mankind.

Henri Bergson (1859 - 1941)
Intuitivism
“Creative Evolution”,
“Matter and Memory”

In his philosophy Bergson manifests true life that is different from matter and spirit.
Intuition, duration, vital impulse

First Hermeneutics: Wilhelm Dilthey (1833 - 1911)
“Introduction to the sciences of the spirit”

Sigmund Freud
(1856 - 1939)
“Totem and Taboo”,
“The Interpretation of Dreams”,
“The Ego and the Id” etc.

Man is a biosocial being, whose psyche is composed of three structures:
1. With the help of consciousness man creates his own “I” (Ego)

2. “It” (Id) is unconscious part of the psyche, in which there are the hidden movements of the soul, human instincts (influenced to “I”)

3. “Super I” (super-Ego) is the cultural taboos of society (impact on the “I”).